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  <small><small>The battle ended any hopes of saving [[Constantinople]] from the Ottoman Empire. The Hungarian kingdom no longer had the military and financial resources to mount an offensive against the Ottomans. With the end of the half-century-long Crusader threat to their European frontier, Murad's son [[Mehmed II]] was free to lay [[Siege of Constantinople (1453)|siege]] to Constantinople in 1453. </small></small>
 
  <small><small>The battle ended any hopes of saving [[Constantinople]] from the Ottoman Empire. The Hungarian kingdom no longer had the military and financial resources to mount an offensive against the Ottomans. With the end of the half-century-long Crusader threat to their European frontier, Murad's son [[Mehmed II]] was free to lay [[Siege of Constantinople (1453)|siege]] to Constantinople in 1453. </small></small>
  
==Background==
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==Tło==
  
In 1448, [[John Hunyadi]] saw the right moment to lead a campaign against the Ottoman Empire. After the defeat at the [[Battle of Varna]] (1444), he raised another army to attack the Ottomans. His strategy was based on an expected revolt of the [[Balkan]] people, a surprise attack, and the destruction of the main force of the Ottomans in a single battle.
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W 1448 r. John Hunyadi zobaczył właściwy moment na przeprowadzenie kampanii przeciwko Imperium Osmańskiemu. Po pokonaniu w bitwie pod Warną (1444) podnieśli kolejną armię, aby zaatakować Turków. Jego strategia opierała się na oczekiwanym buncie narodu bałkańskiego, niespodziewanym ataku i zniszczeniu głównych sił Turków w jednej bitwie.
  
In September 1448 Hunyadi led the Hungarian forces across the Danube river and camped them in Serbia next to [[Kovin]], just outside the Serbian capital of [[Smederevo]]. For a full month the Hungarians were encamped there awaiting the German crusaders, the Wallachian Duke as well as the Bohemian and Albanian army.<ref name="Rogers2010">{{cite book|last=Rogers|first=Clifford|title=The Oxford Encyclopedia of Medieval Warfare and Military Technology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mzwpq6bLHhMC&pg=RA1-PA471|accessdate=11 September 2012|date=2010-06-21|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=9780195334036|page=471}}</ref>  The Albanian army under Skanderbeg did not participate in this battle as he was prevented from linking with Hunyadi's army by the Ottomans and their allies.<ref name="Rogers2010"/><ref name="Frashëri2002pp160-161">{{harvnb|Frashëri|2002|pp=160–161}}</ref> It is believed that he was delayed by Serbian despot [[Đurađ Branković]], then allied with Sultan [[Murad II]], although Branković's exact role is disputed.<ref name="Vaughan1954">{{cite book|last=Vaughan|first=Dorothy Margaret|title=Europe and the Turk: a pattern of alliances, 1350-1700|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=whkOAQAAMAAJ|page=62|accessdate=12 September 2012|date=1954-06-01|publisher=AMS Press|isbn=9780404563325}}</ref><ref name="Sedlar1994">{{cite book|last=Sedlar|first=Jean W.|title=East Central Europe in the Middle Ages, 1000-1500|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ANdbpi1WAIQC&pg=PA393|accessdate=12 September 2012|year=1994|publisher=University of Washington Press|isbn=9780295972909|page=393}}</ref><ref name=Babinger1992p40>{{harvnb|Babinger|1992|p=40}}</ref> As a result, Skanderbeg ravaged Branković's domains as punishment for deserting the Christian cause.<ref name="Frashëri2002pp160-161"/><ref>{{cite book
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<small><small>In 1448, [[John Hunyadi]] saw the right moment to lead a campaign against the Ottoman Empire. After the defeat at the [[Battle of Varna]] (1444), he raised another army to attack the Ottomans. His strategy was based on an expected revolt of the [[Balkan]] people, a surprise attack, and the destruction of the main force of the Ottomans in a single battle. </small></small>
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We wrześniu 1448 r. Hunyadi poprowadził wojska węgierskie przez Dunaj i rozbił obóz w Serbii obok Kovina, tuż poza serbską stolicą Smederevo. Przez cały miesiąc obozowali tam Węgrzy w oczekiwaniu na niemieckich krzyżowców, księcia wołoskiego, a także armię czeską i albańską [4]. Armia albańska pod dowództwem Skanderbega nie uczestniczyła w tej bitwie, ponieważ Ottomanowie i ich sojusznicy nie mogli powiązać ich z armią Hunyadi [4] [5]. Uważano, że opóźnił go serbski despot Đurađ Branković, a następnie sprzymierzył się z sułtanem Muradem II, chociaż dokładna rola Brankovića jest kwestionowana. [6] [7] [8] W rezultacie Skanderbeg spustoszył domeny Brankovicia jako karę za porzucenie sprawy chrześcijańskiej. [5] [9]
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<small><small>In September 1448 Hunyadi led the Hungarian forces across the Danube river and camped them in Serbia next to [[Kovin]], just outside the Serbian capital of [[Smederevo]]. For a full month the Hungarians were encamped there awaiting the German crusaders, the Wallachian Duke as well as the Bohemian and Albanian army.<ref name="Rogers2010">{{cite book|last=Rogers|first=Clifford|title=The Oxford Encyclopedia of Medieval Warfare and Military Technology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mzwpq6bLHhMC&pg=RA1-PA471|accessdate=11 September 2012|date=2010-06-21|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=9780195334036|page=471}}</ref>  The Albanian army under Skanderbeg did not participate in this battle as he was prevented from linking with Hunyadi's army by the Ottomans and their allies.<ref name="Rogers2010"/><ref name="Frashëri2002pp160-161">{{harvnb|Frashëri|2002|pp=160–161}}</ref> It is believed that he was delayed by Serbian despot [[Đurađ Branković]], then allied with Sultan [[Murad II]], although Branković's exact role is disputed.<ref name="Vaughan1954">{{cite book|last=Vaughan|first=Dorothy Margaret|title=Europe and the Turk: a pattern of alliances, 1350-1700|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=whkOAQAAMAAJ|page=62|accessdate=12 September 2012|date=1954-06-01|publisher=AMS Press|isbn=9780404563325}}</ref><ref name="Sedlar1994">{{cite book|last=Sedlar|first=Jean W.|title=East Central Europe in the Middle Ages, 1000-1500|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ANdbpi1WAIQC&pg=PA393|accessdate=12 September 2012|year=1994|publisher=University of Washington Press|isbn=9780295972909|page=393}}</ref><ref name=Babinger1992p40>{{harvnb|Babinger|1992|p=40}}</ref> As a result, Skanderbeg ravaged Branković's domains as punishment for deserting the Christian cause.<ref name="Frashëri2002pp160-161"/><ref>{{cite book
 
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| quote        = Scanderbeg intended to go “peronalmente” with an army to assist Hunyadi, but was prevented from doing so by Branković, whose lands he ravaged as punishment for the Serbian desertion of the Christian cause.
 
| quote        = Scanderbeg intended to go “peronalmente” with an army to assist Hunyadi, but was prevented from doing so by Branković, whose lands he ravaged as punishment for the Serbian desertion of the Christian cause.
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Branković zareagował dwuznacznie na wkroczenia i wynegocjował warunki przyłączenia się do krucjaty przeciwko Turkom w tym czasie. Hunyadi powiedział Brankovićowi, że przyniósł 20 000 własnych ludzi, oczekując dodatkowych posiłków, i że on [Branković] ze swoją lekką kawalerią był jedynym sprzymierzeńcem niezbędnym do decydującego zwycięstwa. Branković był zmęczony, ponieważ jego królestwo zostało przywrócone po pełnej okupacji osmańskiej dopiero w 1444 r. I, w pełni świadomy siły osmańskiej siły wojskowej, chciał utrzymać tron. Despot Branković nie chciał też pod żadnym pozorem poddać się dowództwu Hunyadi, ponieważ osobiście go nie lubił, biorąc pod uwagę niższą postawę.
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<small><small>Branković reacted ambiguously at the trespassing and negotiated the terms of joining the Crusade against the Ottomans over that period of time. Hunyadi had told Branković that he had brought 20,000 of his own men, awaiting additional reinforcements, and that he [Branković] with his light cavalry was the only ally necessary to make this a decisive victory. Branković was weary, having had his realm restored after a full-scale Ottoman occupation only in 1444, and, fully aware of the strength of the Ottoman military force, wanting to keep his throne. Despot Branković was also unwilling to set himself under Hunyadi's command under any condition, as he personally disliked him, considering him of lower stature. </small></small>
  
Branković reacted ambiguously at the trespassing and negotiated the terms of joining the Crusade against the Ottomans over that period of time. Hunyadi had told Branković that he had brought 20,000 of his own men, awaiting additional reinforcements, and that he [Branković] with his light cavalry was the only ally necessary to make this a decisive victory. Branković was weary, having had his realm restored after a full-scale Ottoman occupation only in 1444, and, fully aware of the strength of the Ottoman military force, wanting to keep his throne. Despot Branković was also unwilling to set himself under Hunyadi's command under any condition, as he personally disliked him, considering him of lower stature.
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Centralnym punktem sporu między Hunyadi a Brankovićiem była ich osobista kłótnia. Po pokoju w Szeged w 1444 roku Serbia została wasalem Osmanów, zgadzając się zapłacić 50 000 florenów i wnosząc 4000 kawalerii na wezwanie do broni. Dla Hunyadi i Władysława despot zaoferował wszystkie swoje węgierskie rzeczy do porozumienia w sprawie pokoju. Hunyadi nie przyznał się zbytnio do żadnych umów z Turkami, a Branković widział w tym szansę na pokój i dobrobyt dla Serbii, więc pokój został zawarty, Branković opuścił Węgry do Smederewa. Później tego samego roku (1444) armia krzyżowców chciała dotrzeć do Adrianopola przez Serbię i Bułgarię, ale Branković odmówił im przejścia. Jak wiedzieli krzyżowcy, flota wenecka może blokować cieśniny w Marmara tylko przez krótki czas, wybrali trasę Dunaju, ale Hunyadi próbował szalonego despotę, myśląc, że Murad oddał mu swój kraj na stałe i obiecał Brankovićowi ustawić Serbia płonie po powrocie. Po bitwie w Warnie Hunyadi spędził 1445 r. Na rozwiązywaniu spraw wewnętrznych, w 1446 r. Musiał prowadzić kampanię w Styrii przeciwko Ullrichowi z Celje, aw 1447 r. Stłumił przyjazny dla Osmanów bunt wołoski, ale w 1448 r. Przyszła kolejna krucjata i kolejna szansa aby despota sam się odkupił, ale znowu odmówił przejścia i poprosił o pomoc Turków.
  
The central point of the dispute between Hunyadi and Branković was their personal quarrel. After the [[Peace of Szeged]] in 1444, Serbia became a vassal of the Ottomans, agreeing to pay 50 000 florins and contributing 4 000 cavalry at a call to arms. For Hunyadi and Wladyslaw, the despot offered all his Hungarian belongings to agree the peace. Hunyadi didn't give much credit to any deals with the Ottomans, while Branković saw this as a chance for peace and prosperity for Serbia, so the peace were struck, Branković left Hungary to Smederevo. Later that year (1444) the crusader army wished to reach Adrianople through Serbia and Bulgaria, but Branković denied them passage. As the crusaders knew, that the Venetian fleet can blockade the straits at Marmara for only a short period of time, they chose the Danube route, but Hunyadi deemed the despot crazy for thinking that Murad gave him back his country permanently and promised Branković to set Serbia on fire when they return. After the Varna battle Hunyadi spent 1445 solving internal affairs, in 1446 he had to campaign in Styria against Ullrich of Celje and in 1447 he put down an Ottoman-friendly Wallachian revolt, but in 1448 the time has come to another crusade, and another chance for the despot to redeem himself, but yet again he denied passage and asked help from the Ottomans instead.{{citation needed|date=June 2018}}
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<small><small>The central point of the dispute between Hunyadi and Branković was their personal quarrel. After the [[Peace of Szeged]] in 1444, Serbia became a vassal of the Ottomans, agreeing to pay 50 000 florins and contributing 4 000 cavalry at a call to arms. For Hunyadi and Wladyslaw, the despot offered all his Hungarian belongings to agree the peace. Hunyadi didn't give much credit to any deals with the Ottomans, while Branković saw this as a chance for peace and prosperity for Serbia, so the peace were struck, Branković left Hungary to Smederevo. Later that year (1444) the crusader army wished to reach Adrianople through Serbia and Bulgaria, but Branković denied them passage. As the crusaders knew, that the Venetian fleet can blockade the straits at Marmara for only a short period of time, they chose the Danube route, but Hunyadi deemed the despot crazy for thinking that Murad gave him back his country permanently and promised Branković to set Serbia on fire when they return. After the Varna battle Hunyadi spent 1445 solving internal affairs, in 1446 he had to campaign in Styria against Ullrich of Celje and in 1447 he put down an Ottoman-friendly Wallachian revolt, but in 1448 the time has come to another crusade, and another chance for the despot to redeem himself, but yet again he denied passage and asked help from the Ottomans instead.{{citation needed|date=June 2018}} </small></small>
  
 
==Battle==
 
==Battle==

Wersja z 17:43, 26 gru 2019


The Second Battle of Kosovo (Hungarian: második rigómezei csata, Turkish: İkinci Kosova Savaşı) (17–20 October 1448) was a land battle between a Hungarian-led Crusader army and the Ottoman Empire at Kosovo Polje. It was the culmination of a Hungarian offensive to avenge the defeat at Varna four years earlier. 

W trzydniowej bitwie armia osmańska pod dowództwem sułtana Murada II pokonała armię krzyżowców regenta Johna Hunyadiego. Obliczając, że potrzebowaliby ponad 40 000 ludzi, aby pokonać Turków, regent węgierski starał się połączyć z siłami tureckiej armii osmańskiej, prawdopodobnie pod dowództwem Skanderbega. Osmanie w swojej bazie w Sofii otrzymali wiadomość o marszu szlaku armii krzyżowców i zaczęli czytać swoich ludzi.

In the three-day battle the Ottoman army under the command of Sultan Murad II defeated the Crusader army of regent John Hunyadi. Calculating that he would need more than 40,000 men to defeat the Ottomans, the Hungarian regent sought to join up with anti-Ottoman Albanian forces, possibly led by Skanderbeg. The Ottomans in their base at Sofia received word of the Crusader army's march route and subsequently began readying their men. 

Nie udało się zlokalizować głównej armii osmańskiej, która, jak im się wydaje, wciąż znajduje się w ich stolicy w Edirne, Hunyadi został zaskoczony 17 października, kiedy armia osmańska pojawiła się przed swoimi ludźmi na polu w Kosowie. Zbudował fort taborowy na wzgórzu Plementina, z którego walczyłby z Turkami, którzy w odpowiedzi zbudowali własną palisadę. Konne starcia kawalerii na flankach palisady w ciągu pierwszych dwóch dni oraz nocny atak krzyżowców z użyciem wozów i dział przeciwko środkowej pozycji sułtana w nocy z 18 na 19 października przyniósł rozlew krwi, ale bez rozstrzygających rezultatów.

Having failed to locate the main Ottoman army, whom he believed to still be at their capital in Edirne, Hunyadi was caught by surprise on 17 October when the Ottoman army appeared in front of his men at Kosovo Field. He constructed a tabor wagon fort at Plementina hill from which to fight the Ottomans, who built their own stockade in response. Cavalry skirmishing on the flanks of the stockades during the first two days and a Crusader night-time attack using their wagons and guns against the Sultan's central position on the night of 18/19 October produced much bloodshed but no conclusive results. 

19 października Murad II użył swojej kawalerii sipahi z Tesalii, aby otoczyć kawalerię na lewej flance krzyżowca, a także ogólny atak na całej linii, aby odwrócić uwagę Hunyadi od głównego wysiłku. Manewr się powiódł, a sachaudzi, którzy nie wzięli jeńców, zostali odcięci przez Wołoszczyznę, Mołdawię i Węgier. Znaczna część armii Krzyżowców wycofała się. 20 października, gdy Murad II osobiście obserwował walkę, Janissaries zaatakowali i zabili wszystkich pozostawionych na palisadzie.

On 19 October Murad II used his sipahi cavalry from Thessaly to envelop the cavalry on the Crusader left flank, along with a general assault all along the line to distract Hunyadi from the primary effort. The maneuver worked and the Wallachian, Moldavian and Hungarian cavalry were cut down by the sipahis, who took no prisoners. Much of the Crusader army then retreated. On 20 October, with Murad II personally observing the struggle, the Janissaries attacked and killed everyone left in the stockade. 

Bitwa zakończyła wszelkie nadzieje na uratowanie Konstantynopola przed Imperium Osmańskim. Węgierskie królestwo nie posiadało już środków wojskowych i finansowych do przeprowadzenia ofensywy przeciwko Turkom. Po zakończeniu trwającego od pół wieku zagrożenia krzyżowców na ich europejskiej granicy, syn Murada Mehmed II mógł swobodnie oblegać Konstantynopol w 1453 roku.

The battle ended any hopes of saving Constantinople from the Ottoman Empire. The Hungarian kingdom no longer had the military and financial resources to mount an offensive against the Ottomans. With the end of the half-century-long Crusader threat to their European frontier, Murad's son Mehmed II was free to lay siege to Constantinople in 1453. 

Tło

W 1448 r. John Hunyadi zobaczył właściwy moment na przeprowadzenie kampanii przeciwko Imperium Osmańskiemu. Po pokonaniu w bitwie pod Warną (1444) podnieśli kolejną armię, aby zaatakować Turków. Jego strategia opierała się na oczekiwanym buncie narodu bałkańskiego, niespodziewanym ataku i zniszczeniu głównych sił Turków w jednej bitwie.

In 1448, John Hunyadi saw the right moment to lead a campaign against the Ottoman Empire. After the defeat at the Battle of Varna (1444), he raised another army to attack the Ottomans. His strategy was based on an expected revolt of the Balkan people, a surprise attack, and the destruction of the main force of the Ottomans in a single battle. 

We wrześniu 1448 r. Hunyadi poprowadził wojska węgierskie przez Dunaj i rozbił obóz w Serbii obok Kovina, tuż poza serbską stolicą Smederevo. Przez cały miesiąc obozowali tam Węgrzy w oczekiwaniu na niemieckich krzyżowców, księcia wołoskiego, a także armię czeską i albańską [4]. Armia albańska pod dowództwem Skanderbega nie uczestniczyła w tej bitwie, ponieważ Ottomanowie i ich sojusznicy nie mogli powiązać ich z armią Hunyadi [4] [5]. Uważano, że opóźnił go serbski despot Đurađ Branković, a następnie sprzymierzył się z sułtanem Muradem II, chociaż dokładna rola Brankovića jest kwestionowana. [6] [7] [8] W rezultacie Skanderbeg spustoszył domeny Brankovicia jako karę za porzucenie sprawy chrześcijańskiej. [5] [9]

In September 1448 Hunyadi led the Hungarian forces across the Danube river and camped them in Serbia next to Kovin, just outside the Serbian capital of Smederevo. For a full month the Hungarians were encamped there awaiting the German crusaders, the Wallachian Duke as well as the Bohemian and Albanian army.[1]  The Albanian army under Skanderbeg did not participate in this battle as he was prevented from linking with Hunyadi's army by the Ottomans and their allies.[1][2] It is believed that he was delayed by Serbian despot Đurađ Branković, then allied with Sultan Murad II, although Branković's exact role is disputed.[3][4][5] As a result, Skanderbeg ravaged Branković's domains as punishment for deserting the Christian cause.[2][6] 

Branković zareagował dwuznacznie na wkroczenia i wynegocjował warunki przyłączenia się do krucjaty przeciwko Turkom w tym czasie. Hunyadi powiedział Brankovićowi, że przyniósł 20 000 własnych ludzi, oczekując dodatkowych posiłków, i że on [Branković] ze swoją lekką kawalerią był jedynym sprzymierzeńcem niezbędnym do decydującego zwycięstwa. Branković był zmęczony, ponieważ jego królestwo zostało przywrócone po pełnej okupacji osmańskiej dopiero w 1444 r. I, w pełni świadomy siły osmańskiej siły wojskowej, chciał utrzymać tron. Despot Branković nie chciał też pod żadnym pozorem poddać się dowództwu Hunyadi, ponieważ osobiście go nie lubił, biorąc pod uwagę niższą postawę.

Branković reacted ambiguously at the trespassing and negotiated the terms of joining the Crusade against the Ottomans over that period of time. Hunyadi had told Branković that he had brought 20,000 of his own men, awaiting additional reinforcements, and that he [Branković] with his light cavalry was the only ally necessary to make this a decisive victory. Branković was weary, having had his realm restored after a full-scale Ottoman occupation only in 1444, and, fully aware of the strength of the Ottoman military force, wanting to keep his throne. Despot Branković was also unwilling to set himself under Hunyadi's command under any condition, as he personally disliked him, considering him of lower stature. 

Centralnym punktem sporu między Hunyadi a Brankovićiem była ich osobista kłótnia. Po pokoju w Szeged w 1444 roku Serbia została wasalem Osmanów, zgadzając się zapłacić 50 000 florenów i wnosząc 4000 kawalerii na wezwanie do broni. Dla Hunyadi i Władysława despot zaoferował wszystkie swoje węgierskie rzeczy do porozumienia w sprawie pokoju. Hunyadi nie przyznał się zbytnio do żadnych umów z Turkami, a Branković widział w tym szansę na pokój i dobrobyt dla Serbii, więc pokój został zawarty, Branković opuścił Węgry do Smederewa. Później tego samego roku (1444) armia krzyżowców chciała dotrzeć do Adrianopola przez Serbię i Bułgarię, ale Branković odmówił im przejścia. Jak wiedzieli krzyżowcy, flota wenecka może blokować cieśniny w Marmara tylko przez krótki czas, wybrali trasę Dunaju, ale Hunyadi próbował szalonego despotę, myśląc, że Murad oddał mu swój kraj na stałe i obiecał Brankovićowi ustawić Serbia płonie po powrocie. Po bitwie w Warnie Hunyadi spędził 1445 r. Na rozwiązywaniu spraw wewnętrznych, w 1446 r. Musiał prowadzić kampanię w Styrii przeciwko Ullrichowi z Celje, aw 1447 r. Stłumił przyjazny dla Osmanów bunt wołoski, ale w 1448 r. Przyszła kolejna krucjata i kolejna szansa aby despota sam się odkupił, ale znowu odmówił przejścia i poprosił o pomoc Turków.

The central point of the dispute between Hunyadi and Branković was their personal quarrel. After the Peace of Szeged in 1444, Serbia became a vassal of the Ottomans, agreeing to pay 50 000 florins and contributing 4 000 cavalry at a call to arms. For Hunyadi and Wladyslaw, the despot offered all his Hungarian belongings to agree the peace. Hunyadi didn't give much credit to any deals with the Ottomans, while Branković saw this as a chance for peace and prosperity for Serbia, so the peace were struck, Branković left Hungary to Smederevo. Later that year (1444) the crusader army wished to reach Adrianople through Serbia and Bulgaria, but Branković denied them passage. As the crusaders knew, that the Venetian fleet can blockade the straits at Marmara for only a short period of time, they chose the Danube route, but Hunyadi deemed the despot crazy for thinking that Murad gave him back his country permanently and promised Branković to set Serbia on fire when they return. After the Varna battle Hunyadi spent 1445 solving internal affairs, in 1446 he had to campaign in Styria against Ullrich of Celje and in 1447 he put down an Ottoman-friendly Wallachian revolt, but in 1448 the time has come to another crusade, and another chance for the despot to redeem himself, but yet again he denied passage and asked help from the Ottomans instead.Szablon:Citation needed 

Battle

The Crusaders, numbering 22,000–30,000,{{#invoke:Footnotes|sfn|template=sfn}}[7][8][9] arrived at Kosovo Field – the site of the first Battle of Kosovo in 1389, between Serbs and Ottomans – and faced an Ottoman army of up to 60,000.[9][7] Sultan Murad personally commanded a large section of cannons and janissaries, while his son and would-be successor, 16-year-old Mehmed, who faced battle for the first time, led the Anatolian troops at the right wing. Hunyadi commanded the center of his army in the battle, while the Crusaders right wing was under the Wallachians. The Hungarians had long barrage cannons.

The next day the battle opened when Hunyadi attacked the Ottoman flanks with mixed cavalry (light and heavy). The Turkish flanks, consisting of soldiers from Rumelia and Anatolia, were losing until Turkish light cavalry arrived to reinforce them. The Christian flanks were subsequently routed and the survivors retreated back to Hunyadi's main force. When Hunyadi saw the defeat of his flanks, he attacked with his main force, composed of knights and light infantry. The janissary corps were not successful; the cavalry made progress through the Turkish center but were stopped at the Turkish camp. When the main attack was halted, the Turkish infantry regrouped and successfully drove the Hungarian knights back. The light cavalry, who were now without the knights' support, were also overcome. Hungarian forces retreated to their camp. During the retreat, the janissaries killed most of the Hungarian nobles; Hunyadi fled, but was later captured by the Serbs. During the night, Turkish infantry fired missiles at the Hungarians, who replied with cannons. On the next day, a final assault destroyed the remaining Hungarian army.

Aftermath

The Christian Balkan states were unable to resist the Ottomans after this defeat, eventually falling under control of the Ottoman Empire. After the battle Hunyadi was captured by Branković, who did not release him until a ransom of 100,000 florins, the return of the domains that Hunyadi had revocated from Branković, and the engagement of Hunyadi's heir to Branković's daughter were agreed upon.[10] For the remainder of his reign Hunyadi successfully defended the Kingdom of Hungary against Ottoman campaigns. Skanderbeg also successfully continued his resistance in Albania until his death in 1468, but ten years later in 1478 the country fell under full Ottoman control. The Islamisation of the Balkan states would come to the fore for the next 2 centuries.

Bibliografia

  • Antoche, E.C. (2017). "Hunyadi's Campaign of 1448 and the Second Battle of Kosovo Polje (October 17–20)". In Housley, Norman (ed.). Reconfiguring the Fifteenth-Century Crusade. Palgrave Macmillan. str. 245–285. ISBN 978-1-137-46280-0.
  • Matthew Bennett, The Hutchinson Dictionary of Ancient & Medieval Warfare, Taylor & Francis, 1998.
  • Jean W. Sedlar, East Central Europe in the Middle Ages, 1000-1500, University of Washington Press, 1994.
  • Stephen R. Turnbull, The Ottoman Empire 1326-1699, Osprey Publishing, 2003.

Linki zewnętrzne

Przypisy

  1. 1,0 1,1 Rogers, Clifford (2010-06-21). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Medieval Warfare and Military Technology. Oxford University Press. str. 471. ISBN 9780195334036. https://books.google.com/books?id=mzwpq6bLHhMC&pg=RA1-PA471. Pristupljeno 11 September 2012. 
  2. 2,0 2,1
  3. Vaughan, Dorothy Margaret (1954-06-01). Europe and the Turk: a pattern of alliances, 1350-1700. AMS Press. str. 62. ISBN 9780404563325. https://books.google.com/books?id=whkOAQAAMAAJ. Pristupljeno 12 September 2012. 
  4. Sedlar, Jean W. (1994). East Central Europe in the Middle Ages, 1000-1500. University of Washington Press. str. 393. ISBN 9780295972909. https://books.google.com/books?id=ANdbpi1WAIQC&pg=PA393. Pristupljeno 12 September 2012. 
  5. Kenneth, Setton (1997) [1978]. The papacy and the Levant, 1204–1571: The thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. II. Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society. str. 100. ISBN 978-0-87169-127-9. https://books.google.com/?id=0Sz2VYI0l1IC&pg=PA100&lpg=PA100&dq=ragusa+Kastriot+senate#v=onepage&q=ragusa%20Kastriot%20senate&f=false. Pristupljeno December 8, 2010. "Scanderbeg intended to go “peronalmente” with an army to assist Hunyadi, but was prevented from doing so by Branković, whose lands he ravaged as punishment for the Serbian desertion of the Christian cause." 
  6. 7,0 7,1 Sedlar, East Central Europe in the Middle Ages, p. 248 "Hunyadi,who was now the richest landowner in Hungary, had raised an army of 24,000 men from his private resources, including German and Bohemian infantrymen armed with handguns to supplement his Hungarian cavalry. [...]This time the sultan brought on to the field a force of at least 60,000 men including Janissaries with muskets and a contingent of artillery."
  7. Turnbull, The Ottoman Empire 1326-1699, p. 36 "Hunyadi led an army of 24,000 men, including 8,000 Wallachians, but suffered another military defeat without even seeing his Albanian allies."
  8. 9,0 9,1 Bennett, The Hutchinson Dictionary of Ancient & Medieval Warfare, p. 182 "Hunyadi led 24,000 - 30,000 men including 10,000 Wallachians, but should have waited to join Scanderbeg's troops before confronting Murad's force of 40,000."
  9. Molnár, Miklós (2001-04-30). A Concise History of Hungary. Cambridge University Press. str. 65. ISBN 9780521667364. https://books.google.com/books?id=y0g4YEp7ZrsC&pg=PA65. Pristupljeno 12 September 2012. 

Bitwa na Kosowym Polu
Rigómezei csata (1448)

Podboje Turcji Osmańskiej
Wojownik turecki w walce z węgierskim jeźdźcem
Wojownik turecki w walce z węgierskim jeźdźcem
Czas 18 października-19 października 1448
Miejsce Kosowe Pole
Terytorium Kosowo
Wynik zwycięstwo wojsk tureckich
Strony konfliktu
 22px Królestwo Wegier
 22px Królestwo Polskie
 22px Wołoszczyzna
 22px Mołdawia
Imperium osmańskie
Dowódcy
 20px Jan Hunyady Murad II
Zaangażowane jednostki
{{{jednostki1}}} {{{jednostki2}}}
Siły
 22px 5,000
 22px 4,000
 22px 3,000
40 000
Straty
6,000–17,000 zabitych lub ściętych[1][2][3] 6 000 zabitych[4]

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[[Plik:{{{mapa}}}|240x240px|alt=ilustracja|{{{opis mapy}}}]]
{{{opis mapy}}}
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Plik:Hungary Arms.svg Wojny węgiersko-tureckie 20px

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  1. Antoche, E.C. (2017). "Hunyadi's Campaign of 1448 and the Second Battle of Kosovo Polje (October 17–20)". In Housley, Norman (ed.). Reconfiguring the Fifteenth-Century Crusade. Palgrave Macmillan. str. 273. ISBN 978-1-137-46280-0.
  2. Antoche, E.C. (2017). "Hunyadi's Campaign of 1448 and the Second Battle of Kosovo Polje (October 17–20)". In Housley, Norman (ed.). Reconfiguring the Fifteenth-Century Crusade. Palgrave Macmillan. str. 283. ISBN 978-1-137-46280-0.
  3. Mehmed the Conqueror and His Time by Franz Babinger, str. 55. dostęp: 2019-12-27
  4. Antoche, E.C. (2017). "Hunyadi's Campaign of 1448 and the Second Battle of Kosovo Polje (October 17–20)". In Housley, Norman (ed.). Reconfiguring the Fifteenth-Century Crusade. Palgrave Macmillan. str. 273. ISBN 978-1-137-46280-0.