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| − | Historia Żydów na Węgrzech sięga przynajmniej Królestwa Węgier, a niektóre wzmianki poprzedzają nawet węgierski podbój Kotliny Karpackiej w 895 roku n.e. o ponad 600 lat. Źródła pisane dowodzą, że społeczności żydowskie żyły w średniowiecznym Królestwie Węgier, a nawet przypuszcza się, że kilka sekcji heterogenicznych plemion węgierskich praktykowało judaizm. Urzędnicy żydowscy służyli królowi podczas panowania Andrzeja II na początku XIII wieku. Od drugiej połowy XIII wieku ogólna tolerancja religijna zmniejszyła się, a polityka Węgier upodobniła się do traktowania ludności żydowskiej w Europie Zachodniej. | + | '''Historia Żydów na Węgrzech''' sięga przynajmniej Królestwa Węgier, a niektóre wzmianki poprzedzają nawet węgierski podbój [[Kotlina|Kotliny Karpackiej]] w 895 roku n.e. o ponad 600 lat. Źródła pisane dowodzą, że społeczności żydowskie żyły w średniowiecznym Królestwie Węgier, a nawet przypuszcza się, że kilka sekcji heterogenicznych plemion węgierskich praktykowało judaizm. Urzędnicy żydowscy służyli królowi podczas panowania [[II. András|Andrzeja II]] na początku XIII wieku. Od drugiej połowy XIII wieku ogólna tolerancja religijna zmniejszyła się, a polityka Węgier upodobniła się do traktowania ludności żydowskiej w Europie Zachodniej. |
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| − | <small><small><small><small>The '''history of the [[Jews]] in [[Hungary]]''' dates back to at least the [[Kingdom of Hungary]], with some records even predating the [[Hungarian conquest of the Carpathian Basin]] in 895 CE by over 600 years. Written sources prove that Jewish communities lived in the medieval Kingdom of Hungary and it is even assumed that several sections of the heterogeneous [[Magyar tribes|Hungarian tribes]] practiced Judaism. Jewish officials served the king during the early 13th century reign of [[Andrew II of Hungary|Andrew II]]. From the second part of the 13th century, the general religious tolerance decreased and Hungary's policies became similar to the treatment of the Jewish population in Western Europe. </small></small></small></small>
| + | Węgierscy Żydzi byli dość dobrze zintegrowani ze społeczeństwem węgierskim do czasu pierwszej wojny światowej. Na początku XX wieku społeczność rozrosła się i stanowiła 5% całej populacji Węgier i 23% populacji stolicy, Budapesztu. Żydzi stali się wybitni w nauce, sztuce i biznesie. Do 1941 r. ponad 17% Żydów w Budapeszcie było konwertytami rzymskokatolickimi. <ref><small><sup>'''Uwaga 1:'''</sup></small> „Do 1941 r. ponad 17 procent budapesztańskich Żydów (zgodnie z ustawą) należało do wyznań chrześcijańskich. Liczba nawróconych była tak wielka, a wpływ niektórych z nich tak duży, że w październiku 1938 roku episkopat katolicki utworzył stowarzyszenie dla ich ochrony prawnej i społecznej pn. ''Towarzystwo Świętego Krzyża''. Walczyło ono z urzędnikami o egzekwowanie praw rasowych, prowadziła kampanię przeciwko dalszemu ustawodawstwu, a później próbowała pomóc konwertytom, którzy zostali powołani do batalionów robotniczych.”</ref><ref>Endelman, Todd (22 lutego 2015). ''Leaving the Jewish Fold: Conversion and Radical Assimilation in Modern Jewish History''. Princeton University Press. str. 152. ISBN 9781400866380.</ref> |
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| − | Węgierscy Żydzi byli dość dobrze zintegrowani ze społeczeństwem węgierskim do czasu pierwszej wojny światowej. Na początku XX wieku społeczność rozrosła się i stanowiła 5% całej populacji Węgier i 23% populacji stolicy, Budapesztu. Żydzi stali się wybitni w nauce, sztuce i biznesie. Do 1941 r. Ponad 17% Żydów w Budapeszcie prowadzili rozmowy rzymskokatolickie. '''[B]'''
| + | Polityka antyżydowska stała się bardziej represyjna w okresie międzywojennym, gdy przywódcy Węgier, którzy nadal byli zaangażowani w odzyskanie terytoriów utraconych na mocy porozumienia pokojowego ([[traktat z Trianon]]) z 1920 r., zdecydowali sprzymierzyć się z rządami nazistowskich Niemiec i faszystowskich Włoch − podmioty międzynarodowe prawdopodobnie staną teraz za roszczeniami Węgier<ref name="Mason, John W 2000">Mason, John W; "Hungary's Battle For Memory," ''History Today'', Vol. 50, March 2000</ref>. Począwszy od 1938 roku, Węgry pod rządami [https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikl%C3%B3s_Horthy Miklósa Horthyego] wprowadziły szereg antyżydowskich działań naśladujących niemieckiego prawa norymberskiego. Po niemieckiej okupacji Węgier od 19 marca 1944 r. Żydzi z prowincji zostali deportowani do obozu koncentracyjnego Auschwitz; od maja do lipca tego roku wysłano tam 437.000 Żydów z Węgier, w większości zagazowanych po przyjeździe<ref>Longerich, Peter (2010). ''[https://archive.org/details/holocaustnaziper00long Holocaust: The Nazi Persecution and Murder of the Jews]''. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. str. 408. ISBN 978-0-19-280436-5.</ref>. |
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| − | <small><small><small><small>The Jews of Hungary were fairly well integrated into Hungarian society by the time of the [[First World War]]. By the early [[20th century]], the community had grown to constitute 5% of Hungary's total population and 23% of the population of the capital, [[Budapest]]. Jews became prominent in science, the arts and business. By 1941, over 17% of Budapest's Jews were [[Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]] ''[[converso]]s''.{{efn|"By 1941, over 17 percent of Budapest's Jews (as defined by law) belonged to Christian denominations. The number of converts was so great and the influence of some of them so weighty that the Catholic episcopate created an association for their legal and social protection --- the Holy Cross Society -- in October 1938. It battled officials over enforcement of the racial laws, campaigned against further legislation, and, later, tried to help converts who were drafted into labor battalions."<ref>{{cite book | title=Leaving the Jewish Fold: Conversion and Radical Assimilation in Modern Jewish History | author=Endelman, Todd | publisher=Princeton University Press | date=Feb 22, 2015 | page=152 | isbn=9781400866380}}</ref>}} </small></small></small></small>
| + | Dane spisu ludności Węgier z 2011 r. wykazały, że 1. 965 osób (0,11%) samo zidentyfikowało się jako religijni Żydzi, z czego 10.553 (96,2%) zadeklarowało się jako etniczni Węgrzy.<ref name="2011 census">''[http://www.ksh.hu/nepszamlalas/tablak_teruleti_00 Hungarian census 2011 / Országos adatok (National data) / 2.1.7 A népesség vallás, felekezet és fontosabb demográfiai ismérvek szerint]'' (''Ludność według religii, wyznania - połączone z głównymi danymi demograficznymi''). [https://web.archive.org/web/20150509072107/http://www.ksh.hu/nepszamlalas/tablak_teruleti_00 Zarchiwizowane] z oryginału 2015-05-09. [dostęp:2013-11-07].</ref> Szacunki dotyczące populacji Żydów na Węgrzech w 2010 roku wahają się od 54.000 do ponad 130.000<ref>László Sebők (2012). [http://www.rubicon.hu/magyar/oldalak/a_magyarorszagi_zsidok_a_szamok_tukreben/ "A magyarországi zsidók a számok tükrében"]. Rubicon. [https://web.archive.org/web/20180619063459/http://www.rubicon.hu/magyar/oldalak/a_magyarorszagi_zsidok_a_szamok_tukreben/ Zarchiwizowano] z oryginału 2018-06-19. [dostęp:2018-11-17].</ref>, głównie w Budapeszcie.[http://www.budapest.com/city_guide/culture/jewish_budapest.en.html "Jewish Budapest – Budapest Jewish Population, History, Sights"]. [https://web.archive.org/web/20130225160614/http://www.budapest.com/city_guide/culture/jewish_budapest.en.html Zarchiwizowano] z oryginału 2013-02-25. [dostęp:2013-03-04]. Na Węgrzech działa wiele synagog, w tym [https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wielka_Synagoga_w_Budapeszcie Synagoga] przy ulicy Dohány, największa synagoga w Europie i druga co do wielkości synagoga na świecie po [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congregation_Emanu-El_of_New_York Świątyni Emanu-El] w Nowym Jorku.<ref>Kulish, Nicholas (30 września 2007). [https://www.nytimes.com/2007/12/30/travel/30dayout.html?nytmobile=0 "Out of Darkness, New Life"]. ''The New York Times''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20180212005208/http://www.nytimes.com/2007/12/30/travel/30dayout.html?nytmobile=0 Zarchiwizowano] 2018-02-12. [dostęp:2017-05-10].</ref> |
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| − | Polityka antyżydowska stała się bardziej represyjna w okresie międzywojennym, gdy przywódcy Węgier, którzy nadal byli zaangażowani w odzyskanie terytoriów utraconych na mocy porozumienia pokojowego (traktat z Trianon) z 1920 r., Zdecydowali się sprzymierzyć się z rządami nazistowskich Niemiec i faszystowskich Włoch - podmioty międzynarodowe prawdopodobnie staną teraz za roszczeniami Węgier [8]. Począwszy od 1938 roku, Węgry pod rządami Miklósa Horthy'ego wprowadziły szereg antyżydowskich środków naśladowania niemieckiego prawa norymberskiego. Po niemieckiej okupacji Węgier 19 marca 1944 r. Żydzi z prowincji zostali deportowani do obozu koncentracyjnego Auschwitz; od maja do lipca tego roku wysłano tam 437 000 Żydów z Węgier, w większości zagazowanych po przyjeździe [9].
| + | == Wczesna historia == |
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| − | <small><small><small><small>Anti-Jewish policies grew more repressive in the interwar period as Hungary's leaders, who remained committed to regaining the territories lost at the peace agreement ([[Treaty of Trianon]]) of 1920, chose to align themselves with the governments of [[Nazi Germany]] and [[Kingdom of Italy#Fascist regime (1922–1943)|Fascist Italy]] – the international actors most likely to stand behind Hungary's claims.<ref name="Mason, John W 2000"/> Starting in 1938, Hungary under [[Miklós Horthy]] passed a series of anti-Jewish measures in emulation of Germany's [[Nürnberg Laws]]. Following the [[Operation Margarethe|German occupation of Hungary]] on 19 March 1944, Jews from the provinces were deported to the [[Auschwitz concentration camp]]; between May and July that year, 437,000 Jews were sent there from Hungary, most of them gassed on arrival.<ref>{{cite book | last = Longerich | first = Peter | authorlink=Peter Longerich |title = Holocaust: The Nazi Persecution and Murder of the Jews | url = https://archive.org/details/holocaustnaziper00long | url-access = limited | year = 2010 | isbn = 978-0-19-280436-5 | publisher = Oxford University Press | location = Oxford and New York | ref = harv| page=[https://archive.org/details/holocaustnaziper00long/page/n422 408]}}</ref> </small></small></small></small>
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| − | Dane spisu ludności Węgier z 2011 r. Wykazały, że 10 965 osób (0,11%) samo zidentyfikowało się jako religijni Żydzi, z czego 10 553 (96,2%) zadeklarowało się jako etniczni Węgrzy. [5] Szacunki dotyczące populacji Żydów na Węgrzech w 2010 roku wahają się od 54 000 do ponad 130 000 [10], głównie w Budapeszcie. [11] Na Węgrzech działa wiele synagog, w tym Synagoga przy ulicy Dohány, największa synagoga w Europie i druga co do wielkości synagoga na świecie po Świątyni Emanu-El w Nowym Jorku. [12]
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| − | <small><small><small><small>The 2011 Hungary [[census]] data had 10,965 people (0.11%) who self-identified as [[Judaism|religious Jews]], of whom 10,553 (96.2%) declared themselves as [[Hungarian people|ethnic Hungarian]].<ref name="2011 census"/> Estimates of Hungary's Jewish population in 2010 range from 54,000 to more than 130,000<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.rubicon.hu/magyar/oldalak/a_magyarorszagi_zsidok_a_szamok_tukreben/ |title=A magyarországi zsidók a számok tükrében |publisher=Rubicon |date=2012 |author=László Sebők |access-date=2018-11-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180619063459/http://www.rubicon.hu/magyar/oldalak/a_magyarorszagi_zsidok_a_szamok_tukreben/ |archive-date=2018-06-19 |url-status=live |df= }}</ref> mostly concentrated in [[Budapest]].<ref name=autogenerated4>{{Cite web |url=http://www.budapest.com/city_guide/culture/jewish_budapest.en.html |title=Jewish Budapest – Budapest Jewish Population, History, Sights<!-- Bot generated title --> |access-date=2013-03-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130225160614/http://www.budapest.com/city_guide/culture/jewish_budapest.en.html |archive-date=2013-02-25 |url-status=live |df= }}</ref> There are many active [[synagogues]] in Hungary, including the [[Dohány Street Synagogue]], the largest synagogue in Europe and the second largest synagogue in the world after the [[Congregation Emanu-El of New York|Temple Emanu-El]] in [[New York City]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Kulish |first=Nicholas |date=30 December 2007 |title=Out of Darkness, New Life |newspaper=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/12/30/travel/30dayout.html?nytmobile=0 |access-date=2017-05-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180212005208/http://www.nytimes.com/2007/12/30/travel/30dayout.html?nytmobile=0 |archive-date=2018-02-12 |url-status=live |df= }}</ref> </small></small></small></small>
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| − | ==Early history==
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| | === Przed 1095 === | | === Przed 1095 === |
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| − | Nie wiadomo dokładnie, kiedy Żydzi osiedlili się na Węgrzech. Zgodnie z tradycją król Decebalus (rządzący Dacją 87-106 ne) zezwolił Żydom, którzy pomagali mu w wojnie z Rzymem, osiedlić się na jego terytorium. [13] Dacia obejmowała część dzisiejszych Węgier, Rumunii i Mołdawii oraz mniejsze obszary Bułgarii, Ukrainy i Serbii. Więźniowie wojen żydowskich mogli zostać sprowadzeni z powrotem przez zwycięskie legiony rzymskie normalnie stacjonujące w Provincia Pannonia (zachodnie Węgry, wschodnia Austria). Marek Aureliusz nakazał przeniesienie części swoich zbuntowanych żołnierzy z Syrii do Panonii w 175 roku n.e. Oddziały te rekrutowano częściowo w Antiochii i Hemesie (obecnie Homs), które w tamtym czasie nadal miały znaczną populację żydowską. Oddziały Antiochii zostały przeniesione do Ulcisia Castra (dziś Szentendre), podczas gdy wojska hemizyjskie osiedliły się w Intercisa (Dunaújváros). [14] | + | Nie wiadomo dokładnie, kiedy Żydzi osiedlili się na Węgrzech. Zgodnie z tradycją król [https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decebal Decebal (rządzący Dacją 87-106 ne) zezwolił Żydom, którzy pomagali mu w wojnie z Rzymem, osiedlić się na jego terytorium.<ref name="Singer et al. 1906, str. 494">Büchler, Alexander (1904). "Hungary". W: Singer, Isidore (wyd.). ''The Jewish Encyclopedia''. '''6'''. New York and London: Funk and Wagnalls Co. str. 494–503.</ref> Dacja obejmowała część dzisiejszych Węgier, Rumunii i Mołdawii oraz mniejsze obszary Bułgarii, Ukrainy i Serbii. Więźniowie wojen żydowskich mogli zostać sprowadzeni z powrotem przez zwycięskie legiony rzymskie normalnie stacjonujące w ''Provincia Pannonia'' (zachodnie Węgry, wschodnia Austria). Marek Aureliusz nakazał przeniesienie części swoich zbuntowanych żołnierzy z Syrii do Panonii w 175 roku n.e. Oddziały te rekrutowano częściowo w Antiochii i Hemesie (obecnie Homs), które w tamtym czasie nadal miały znaczną populację żydowską. Oddziały z Antiochii zostały przeniesione do Ulcisia Castra (dziś Szentendre), podczas gdy wojska hemizyjskie osiedliły się w Intercisa (Dunaújváros).<ref name="Jews of Hungary book">Patai, Raphael (1996). ''The Jews of Hungary: History, Culture, Psychology''. Wayne State University Press. str. 22. ISBN 0814325610.</ref> |
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| − | <small><small><small><small>It is not definitely known when Jews first settled in Hungary. According to tradition, King [[Decebalus]] (ruled [[Dacia]] 87-106 CE) permitted the Jews who aided him in his war against [[Rome]] to settle in his territory.<ref name="Singer et al. 1906, p. 494">{{cite book|author-last=Büchler|author-first=Alexander|chapter=Hungary|editor1-last=Singer|editor1-first=Isidore |title=The Jewish Encyclopedia |date=1904|publisher=Funk and Wagnalls Co.|location=New York and London |volume=6|pages=[https://archive.org/details/TheJewishEncyclopediaVIGodIstria/page/n509 494–503] |ref=harv}}</ref> Dacia included part of modern-day Hungary as well as [[Romania]] and [[Moldova]] and smaller areas of [[Bulgaria]], [[Ukraine]], and [[Serbia]]. Prisoners of the [[Jewish–Roman wars|Jewish Wars]] may have been brought back by the victorious Roman legions normally stationed in Provincia [[Pannonia]] (western Hungary, eastern Austria). [[Marcus Aurelius]] ordered the transfer of some of his rebellious troops from Syria to Pannonia in 175 CE. These troops had been recruited partly in [[Antioch]] and Hemesa (now [[Homs]]), which still had a sizable Jewish population at that time. The Antiochian troops were transferred to Ulcisia Castra (today [[Szentendre]]), while the Hemesian troops settled in Intercisa ([[Dunaújváros]]).<ref name="Jews of Hungary book"/> </small></small></small></small>
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| − | Według Raphaela Patai kamienne inskrypcje odnoszące się do Żydów znaleziono w Brigetio (obecnie Szőny), Solva (Esztergom), Aquincum (Budapeszt), Intercisa (Dunaújváros), Triccinae (Sárvár), Dombovár, Siklós, Sopianae (Pécs i Savlyaria) (Szombathearia) [14] Inskrypcja łacińska, epitafium Septimy Marii, odkryta w Siklós (południowe Węgry w pobliżu granicy z Chorwacją), wyraźnie nawiązuje do jej żydowskości („Judea”). [13] Tablica Intercisa została wyryta w imieniu „Cosmiusa”. , szef celnej Spondilla, archisynagogus Iudeorum [głowa synagogi żydowskiej] „za panowania Aleksandra Sewera. W 2008 roku zespół archeologów odkrył amulet z III wieku w postaci złotego zwoju z napisem żydowskiej modlitwy Shema 'Yisrael wyryte na niej w Half Tower (obecnie Halbturn, Burgenland, w Austrii). [15] Węgierskie plemiona osiadły na tym terytorium 650 lat później. W języku węgierskim słowo oznaczające Żyd to Żyd, które zostało przejęte z jeden z języków słowiańskich. [13] [16]
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| − | <small><small><small><small>According to Raphael Patai, stone inscriptions referring to Jews were found in Brigetio (now [[Szőny]]), Solva ([[Esztergom]]), Aquincum ([[Budapest]]), Intercisa (Dunaújváros), Triccinae ([[Sárvár]]), Dombovár, Siklós, Sopianae ([[Pécs]] and Savaria ([[Szombathely]]).<ref name="Jews of Hungary book">{{cite book | last=Patai |first=Raphael |title=The Jews of Hungary: History, Culture, Psychology | publisher=Wayne State University Press | year=1996 | page=22 | isbn=0814325610 |ref=harv}}</ref> A [[Latin]] inscription, the epitaph of Septima Maria, discovered in [[Siklós]] (southern Hungary near Croatian border), clearly refers to her Jewishness ("Judaea").<ref name="Singer et al. 1906, p. 494"/> The Intercisa tablet was inscribed on behalf of "Cosmius, chief of the Spondilla customhouse, {{lang|la|[[archisynagogus]] Iudeorum}} [head of the synagogue of the Jews]" during the reign of [[Alexander Severus]]. In 2008, a team of archeologists discovered a 3rd-century AD amulet in the form of a gold scroll with the words of the Jewish prayer Shema' Yisrael inscribed on it in Féltorony (now [[Halbturn]], [[Burgenland]], in Austria).<ref>[https://medienportal.univie.ac.at/presse/aktuelle-pressemeldungen/detailansicht/artikel/archaeological-sensation-in-austria-scientists-from-the-university-of-vienna-unearth-the-earliest-e/ "Archaeological sensation in Austria. Scientists from the University of Vienna unearth the earliest evidence of Jewish inhabitants in Austria,"] (13 March 2008) Universität Wien: Öffentlichkeitsarbeit und Veranstaltungsmanagement (University of Vienna: Public relations and Event management).</ref> Hungarian tribes settled the territory 650 years later. In the Hungarian language, the word for Jew is ''zsidó'', which was adopted from one of the [[Slavic peoples|Slavic]] languages.<ref name="Singer et al. 1906, p. 494"/><ref>[https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/zsid%C3%B3#Etymology Wiktionary: ''zsidó'']</ref> </small></small></small></small>
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| − | Pierwszym dokumentem historycznym dotyczącym węgierskich Żydów jest list napisany około 960 roku n.e. do króla Józefa Chazarów przez Hasdai ibn Shapruta, żydowskiego męża stanu Kordoby, w którym mówi, że słowiańscy ambasadorowie obiecali dostarczyć wiadomość królowi. Slawonii, która to samo oddałaby Żydom mieszkającym w „kraju węgierskim”, a ci z kolei przekazaliby to dalej. Mniej więcej w tym samym czasie Ibrahim ibn Jacob mówi, że Żydzi wyjeżdżali z Węgier do Pragi w celach biznesowych. Nie wiadomo nic o Żydach za czasów wielkich książąt, poza tym, że mieszkali na wsi i tam prowadzili handel. [13]
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| − | <small><small><small><small>The first historical document relating to the Jews of Hungary is the letter written about 960 CE to King [[Joseph (Khazar)|Joseph of the Khazars]] by [[Hasdai ibn Shaprut]], the Jewish statesman of [[Córdoba, Spain|Córdoba]], in which he says that the [[Slavic peoples|Slavic]] ambassadors promised to deliver the message to the King of [[Slavonia]], who would hand the same to Jews living in [[Principality of Hungary|"the country of Hungarian"]], who, in turn, would transmit it farther. About the same time Ibrahim ibn Jacob says that Jews went from Hungary to [[Prague]] for business purposes. Nothing is known concerning the Jews during the period of the [[Grand Prince of the Hungarians|grand princes]], except that they lived in the country and engaged in commerce there.<ref name="Singer et al. 1906, p. 494"/> </small></small></small></small>
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| − | W 1061 roku król Béla I zarządził, że targi powinny odbywać się w soboty zamiast tradycyjnych niedziel (język węgierski zachował poprzedni zwyczaj, „niedziela” = dosł. „Dzień targowy”). Za panowania św. Władysława (1077–1095) synod w Szabolcs zadekretował (20 maja 1092 r.), Że Żydom nie należy zezwalać na posiadanie chrześcijańskich żon ani na trzymanie chrześcijańskich niewolników. Dekret ten był promulgowany w chrześcijańskich krajach Europy od V wieku, a św. Władysław jedynie wprowadził go na Węgry [13].
| + | Według Raphaela Patai kamienne inskrypcje odnoszące się do Żydów znaleziono w Brigetio (obecnie Szőny), Solva (Esztergom), Aquincum (Budapeszt), Intercisa (Dunaújváros), Triccinae (Sárvár), Dombovár, Siklós, Sopianae (Pécs i Savaria) (Szombathely).<ref name="Jews of Hungary book"/> Inskrypcja łacińska, epitafium Septimy Marii, odkryta w Siklós (południowe Węgry w pobliżu granicy z Chorwacją), wyraźnie nawiązuje do jej żydowskości („Judaea”).<ref name="Singer et al. 1906, str. 494"/> Tablica Intercisa została wyryta w imieniu „Cosmiusa, szefa urzędu celnego ''Spondilla'' − ''archisynagogus Iudeorum'' [głowy synagogi żydowskiej] za panowania Aleksandra Sewera. W 2008 roku zespół archeologów odkrył amulet z III wieku w postaci złotego zwoju z napisem żydowskiej modlitwy Shema' Yisrael w Féltorony (teraz [[Halbturn]], [[Burgenland]], w Austria).<ref>[https://medienportal.univie.ac.at/presse/aktuelle-pressemeldungen/detailansicht/artikel/archaeological-sensation-in-austria-scientists-from-the-university-of-vienna-unearth-the-earliest-e/ "Archaeological sensation in Austria. Scientists from the University of Vienna unearth the earliest evidence of Jewish inhabitants in Austria,"] (13 March 2008) Universität Wien: Öffentlichkeitsarbeit und Veranstaltungsmanagement (University of Vienna: Public relations i zarządzanie wydarzeniami).</ref> Węgierskie plemiona osiadły na tym terytorium 650 lat później. W języku węgierskim słowo oznaczające Żyda to ''zsidó'', które zostało przejęte z jednego z języków słowiańskich.<ref name="Singer et al. 1906, str. 494"/><ref>[https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/zsid%C3%B3#Etymology Wiktionary: ''zsidó'']</ref> |
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| − | <small><small><small><small>In 1061, King [[Béla I of Hungary|Béla I]] ordered that markets should take place on Saturdays instead of the traditional Sundays (Hungarian language has preserved the previous custom, "Sunday" = {{wikt-lang|hu|vasárnap}}, {{abbr|lit.|literally}} "market day"). In the reign of [[Ladislaus I of Hungary|St. Ladislaus]] (1077–1095), the [[Synod of Szabolcs]] decreed (May 20, 1092) that Jews should not be permitted to have [[Christians|Christian]] wives or to keep Christian [[slaves]]. This decree had been promulgated in the Christian countries of [[Europe]] since the 5th century, and St. Ladislaus merely introduced it into Hungary.<ref name="Singer et al. 1906, p. 494"/> </small></small></small></small>
| + | Pierwszym dokumentem historycznym dotyczącym węgierskich Żydów jest list napisany około 960 roku n.e. do króla Chazarów [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_(Khazar) Józefa] przez [https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chasdaj_ibn_Szaprut Chasdai ibn Shapruta], żydowskiego męża stanu Kordoby, w którym mówi, że słowiańscy ambasadorowie obiecali dostarczyć wiadomość królowi Slawonii, która to samo oddałaby Żydom mieszkającym w „kraju węgierskim”, a ci z kolei przekazaliby to dalej. Mniej więcej w tym samym czasie [https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibrahim_ibn_Jakub Ibrahim ibn Jakub] mówi, że Żydzi wyjeżdżali z Węgier do Pragi w celach biznesowych. Nie wiadomo nic o Żydach za czasów wielkich książąt, poza tym, że mieszkali na wsi i tam prowadzili handel.<ref name="Singer et al. 1906, str. 494"/> |
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| − | Węgierscy Żydzi początkowo tworzyli małe osady i nie mieli wykształconych rabinów; ale ściśle przestrzegali wszystkich żydowskich praw i zwyczajów. Jedna z tradycji podąża za historią Żydów z Ratisbon (Regensburg) przybywających na Węgry w piątek z towarami z Rosji; koło ich wozu pękło w pobliżu Budy (Ofen) lub Esztergom (Gran) i zanim go naprawili i wjechali do miasta, Żydzi właśnie opuszczali synagogę. Nieumyślni łamiący szabat zostali ukarani wysokimi grzywnami. Rytuał węgierskich Żydów wiernie odzwierciedlał współczesne niemieckie zwyczaje. [13]
| + | W 1061 roku król [[I. Béla|Bela I]] zarządził, że targi powinny odbywać się w soboty zamiast tradycyjnych niedziel (język węgierski zachował poprzedni zwyczaj, „niedziela” = dosł. „Dzień targowy”). Za panowania [[I. László|św. Władysława]] (1077–1095) synod w Szabolcs zadekretował (20 maja 1092 r.), że Żydom nie należy zezwalać na posiadanie chrześcijańskich żon ani na trzymanie chrześcijańskich niewolników. Dekret ten był promulgowany w chrześcijańskich krajach Europy od V wieku, a św. Władysław jedynie wprowadził go na Węgry.<ref name="Singer et al. 1906, str. 494"/> |
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| − | <small><small><small><small>The Jews of Hungary at first formed small settlements, and had no learned [[rabbi]]s; but they were strictly observant of all the [[Halakha|Jewish law]]s and customs. One tradition relates the story of Jews from Ratisbon ([[Regensburg]]) coming into Hungary with merchandise from [[Russia]], on a Friday; the wheel of their wagon broke near [[Buda]] (Ofen) or [[Esztergom]] (Gran) and by the time they had repaired it and had entered the town, the Jews were just leaving the [[synagogue]]. The unintentional [[Shabbat|Sabbath]]-breakers were heavily fined. The ritual of the Hungarian Jews faithfully reflected contemporary [[German peoples|German]] customs.<ref name="Singer et al. 1906, p. 494"/> </small></small></small></small>
| + | Węgierscy Żydzi początkowo tworzyli małe osady i nie mieli wykształconych rabinów; ale ściśle przestrzegali wszystkich żydowskich praw i zwyczajów. Jedna z tradycji podąża za historią Żydów z Ratisbon (Regensburg) przybywających na Węgry w piątek z towarami z Rusi; koło ich wozu pękło w pobliżu Budy (Ofen) lub Esztergom (Gran) i zanim go naprawili i wjechali do miasta, Żydzi właśnie opuszczali synagogę. Nieumyślni łamiący szabat zostali ukarani wysokimi grzywnami. Rytuał węgierskich Żydów wiernie odzwierciedlał współczesne niemieckie zwyczaje.<ref name="Singer et al. 1906, str. 494"/> |
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| | === 1095–1349 === | | === 1095–1349 === |
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| − | Coloman (1095–1116), następca św. Władysława, odnowił dekret Szabolcs z 1092 r., Dodając kolejne zakazy zatrudniania chrześcijańskich niewolników i czeladzi. Ograniczył też Żydów do miast posiadających biskupstwa - prawdopodobnie po to, by mieć ich pod stałym nadzorem Kościoła. Wkrótce po ogłoszeniu tego dekretu na Węgry przybyli krzyżowcy; ale Węgrzy nie sympatyzowali z nimi, a Koloman nawet im się sprzeciwiał. Rozwścieczeni krzyżowcy zaatakowali niektóre miasta i jeśli wierzyć Gedaliaszowi ibn Jaji, Żydów spotkał podobny los, jak ich współwyznawców we Francji, Niemczech i Czechach [13].
| + | [[Koloman]] (1095–1116), następca św. Władysława, odnowił dekret Szabolcs z 1092 r., dodając kolejne zakazy zatrudniania chrześcijańskich niewolników i czeladzi. Ograniczył też zamieszkanie Żydów do miast posiadających biskupstwa − prawdopodobnie po to, by mieć ich pod stałym nadzorem Kościoła. Wkrótce po ogłoszeniu tego dekretu na Węgry przybyli [https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krucjata krzyżowcy]; ale Węgrzy nie sympatyzowali z nimi, a Koloman nawet im się sprzeciwiał. Rozwścieczeni krzyżowcy zaatakowali niektóre miasta i jeśli wierzyć [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gedaliah_ibn_Yahya_ben_Joseph Gedaliah ibn Yahya ben Josephowi], Żydów spotkał podobny los, jak ich współwyznawców we Francji, Niemczech i Czechach.<ref name="Singer et al. 1906, str. 494"/> |
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| − | <small><small><small><small>[[Coloman, King of Hungary|Coloman]] (1095–1116), the successor of St. Ladislaus, renewed the Szabolcs decree of 1092, adding further prohibitions against the employment of Christian slaves and domestics. He also restricted the Jews to cities with [[episcopal see]]s – probably to have them under the continuous supervision of the [[Roman Catholic Church|Church]]. Soon after the promulgation of this decree, [[Crusade]]rs came to Hungary; but the [[Hungarians]] did not sympathize with them, and Coloman even opposed them. The infuriated Crusaders attacked some cities, and if [[Gedaliah ibn Yaḥya]] is to be believed, the Jews suffered a fate similar to that of their coreligionists in [[France]], [[Germany]], and [[Bohemia]].<ref name="Singer et al. 1906, p. 494"/> </small></small></small></small>
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| − | Okrucieństwa zadane Żydom w Czechach skłoniły wielu z nich do szukania schronienia na Węgrzech. Prawdopodobnie to właśnie imigracja bogatych czeskich Żydów skłoniła Colomana wkrótce potem do uregulowania transakcji handlowych i bankowych między Żydami a chrześcijanami. Zadekretował, między innymi, że jeśli chrześcijanin pożyczył od Żyda lub Żyd od chrześcijanina, w transakcji muszą być obecni zarówno świadkowie chrześcijańscy, jak i żydowscy. [13]
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| − | <small><small><small><small>The cruelties inflicted upon the Jews of Bohemia induced many of them to seek refuge in Hungary. It was probably the immigration of the rich Bohemian Jews that induced Coloman soon afterward to regulate commercial and banking transactions between Jews and Christians. He decreed, among other regulations, that if a Christian borrowed from a Jew, or a Jew from a Christian, both Christian and Jewish witnesses must be present at the transaction.<ref name="Singer et al. 1906, p. 494"/> </small></small></small></small>
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| − | Za panowania króla Andrzeja II (1205–1235) żyli tu żydowscy szambelani, mennicy, solnicy i urzędnicy podatkowi. Jednakże szlachta tego kraju nakłoniła króla w swojej Złotej Bulli (1222) do pozbawienia Żydów tych wysokich urzędów. Kiedy Andrzej potrzebował pieniędzy w 1226 r., Królewskie dochody uprawiał Żydom, co dało podstawy do wielu skarg. Papież (papież Honoriusz III) następnie ekskomunikował go, aż w 1233 roku obiecał ambasadorom papieskim pod przysięgą, że będą egzekwować dekrety Złotej Bulli skierowane przeciwko Żydom i Saracenom (do tego czasu papiestwo się zmieniło, a papież był teraz papieżem Grzegorzem IX; mieliby odróżniać oba narody od chrześcijan za pomocą odznak i zabroniliby Żydom i Saracenom kupowania lub zatrzymywania chrześcijańskich niewolników [13].
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| − | <small><small><small><small>During the reign of King [[Andrew II of Hungary|Andrew II]] (1205–1235) there were Jewish [[Chamberlain (office)|Chamberlains]] and mint-, salt-, and tax-officials. The [[nobles]] of the country, however, induced the king, in his [[Golden Bull of 1222|Golden Bull]] (1222), to deprive the Jews of these high offices. When Andrew needed money in 1226, he [[Farm (revenue leasing)|farmed the royal revenues]] to Jews, which gave ground for much complaint. The [[pope]] ([[Pope Honorius III]]) thereupon excommunicated him, until, in 1233, he promised the papal ambassadors on oath that he would enforce the decrees of the Golden Bull directed against the Jews and the [[Saracens]] (by this time, the papacy had changed, and the Pope was now [[Pope Gregory IX]]; he would cause both peoples to be distinguished from Christians by means of badges; and would forbid both Jews and Saracens to buy or to keep Christian slaves.<ref name="Singer et al. 1906, p. 494"/> </small></small></small></small>
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| − | Rok 1240 był zamknięciem piątego tysiąclecia ery żydowskiej. W tym czasie Żydzi oczekiwali nadejścia swojego Mesjasza. Inwazja mongolska w 1241 r. Zapoczątkowała oczekiwanie, ponieważ wyobraźnia żydowska spodziewała się, że szczęśliwy okres mesjański zapoczątkuje wojna Goga i Magoga. Béla IV (1235–1270) mianował Żyda imieniem Henul na urząd nadwornego szambelana (Teka pełnił ten urząd za Andrzeja II); a Wölfel i jego synowie Altmann i Nickel trzymali zamek w Komárom z posiadłościami w zastawie. Béla powierzył także Żydom mennicę; a hebrajskie monety z tego okresu nadal znajdują się na Węgrzech. W 1251 r. Béla nadał swoim poddanym żydowskim przywilej, który był zasadniczo taki sam, jak przywilej nadany austriackim Żydom przez księcia Fryderyka II Kłótliwego w 1244 r., Który jednak Béla zmodyfikował, aby dostosować go do warunków węgierskich. Przywilej ten obowiązywał aż do bitwy pod Mohaczem (1526). [13]
| + | Okrucieństwa zadane Żydom w Czechach skłoniły wielu z nich do szukania schronienia na Węgrzech. Prawdopodobnie to właśnie imigracja bogatych czeskich Żydów skłoniła Kolomana wkrótce potem do uregulowania transakcji handlowych i bankowych między Żydami a chrześcijanami. Zadekretował, między innymi, że jeśli chrześcijanin pożyczył od Żyda lub Żyd od chrześcijanina, w transakcji muszą być obecni zarówno świadkowie chrześcijańscy, jak i żydowscy.<ref name="Singer et al. 1906, str. 494"/> |
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| − | <small><small><small><small>The year 1240 was the closing one of the fifth millennium of the Jewish era. At that time the Jews were expecting the advent of their [[Messiah]]. The [[Mongol invasion]] in 1241 seemed to conform to expectation, as Jewish imagination expected the happy Messianic period to be ushered in by the war of [[Gog and Magog]]. [[Béla IV]] (1235–1270) appointed a Jewish man named [[Henul]] to the office of court chamberlain (Teka had filled this office under Andrew II); and [[Wölfel]] and his sons [[Altmann (Hungarian)|Altmann]] and [[Nickel (Hungarian)|Nickel]] held the castle at [[Komárom]] with its domains in pawn. Béla also entrusted the Jews with the mint; and Hebrew coins of this period are still found in Hungary. In 1251 a ''privilegium'' was granted by Béla to his Jewish subjects which was essentially the same as that granted by Duke [[Frederick II, Duke of Austria|Frederick II the Quarrelsome]] to the [[Austria]]n Jews in 1244, but which Béla modified to suit the conditions of Hungary. This ''privilegium'' remained in force down to the [[Battle of Mohács]] (1526).<ref name="Singer et al. 1906, p. 494"/> </small></small></small></small>
| + | Za panowania króla [[II. András|Andrzeja II]] (1205–1235) żyli tu żydowscy szambelani, mennicy, solnicy i urzędnicy podatkowi. Jednakże szlachta tego kraju nakłoniła króla w swojej [[Aranybulla|Złotej Bulli]] (1222) do pozbawienia Żydów tych wysokich urzędów. Gdy Andrzej potrzebował pieniędzy w 1226 r., królewskie dochody przekazywał Żydom, co dało podstawy do wielu skarg. Papież [[Honoriusz III]] następnie ekskomunikował go, aż w 1233 roku król obiecał ambasadorom papieskim pod przysięgą, że będzie egzekwować dekrety Złotej Bulli skierowane przeciwko Żydom i Saracenom (do tego czasu papiestwo się zmieniło, a papieżem był teraz [[Grzegorz IX]]; mieliby odróżniać oba narody od chrześcijan za pomocą odznak i zabroniliby Żydom i Saracenom kupowania lub zatrzymywania chrześcijańskich niewolników<ref name="Singer et al. 1906, str. 494"/>. |
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| − | Na synodzie w Budzie (1279), za panowania króla Węgier Władysława IV (1272–1290), w obecności ambasadora papieskiego postanowiono, że każdy Żyd występujący publicznie powinien nosić po lewej stronie jego górna część garderoby to kawałek czerwonego materiału; że jakiemukolwiek chrześcijaninowi prowadzącemu interesy z Żydem, który nie jest tak oznaczony, lub mieszkającym w domu lub na ziemi razem z jakimkolwiek Żydem, należy odmówić przyjęcia na nabożeństwa kościelne; i że chrześcijanin powierzający jakikolwiek urząd Żydowi powinien być ekskomunikowany. Andrzej III (1291–1301), ostatni król z dynastii Árpádów, w przywileju udzielonym gminie Posonium (Bratysława) zadeklarował, że Żydzi w tym mieście powinni cieszyć się wszystkimi swobodami obywateli [17].
| + | Rok 1240 był zamknięciem piątego tysiąclecia ery żydowskiej. W tym czasie Żydzi oczekiwali nadejścia swojego Mesjasza. [[Inwazja Mongołów 1241|Inwazja mongolska]] w 1241 r. zapoczątkowała oczekiwanie, ponieważ wyobraźnia żydowska spodziewała się, że szczęśliwy okres mesjański zapoczątkuje wojna Goga i Magoga. [[IV. Béla|Bela IV]] (1235–1270) mianował Żyda imieniem [[Henul]] na urząd nadwornego szambelana (pełnił ten urząd za Andrzeja II); a Wölfel i jego synowie Altmann i Nickel trzymali zamek w Komárom z posiadłościami w zastawie. Bela powierzył także Żydom mennicę; a hebrajskie monety z tego okresu nadal znajdują się na Węgrzech. W 1251 r. Bela nadał swoim poddanym żydowskim przywilej, który był zasadniczo taki sam, jak przywilej nadany austriackim Żydom przez księcia [[Fryderyk Kłótliwy|Fryderyka II Kłótliwego]] w 1244 r., który jednak Bela zmodyfikował, aby dostosować go do warunków węgierskich. Przywilej ten obowiązywał aż do [[Mohacz|bitwy pod Mohaczem]] (1526).<ref name="Singer et al. 1906, str. 494"/> |
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| − | <small><small><small><small>At the [[Synod of Buda]] (1279), held in the reign of King [[Ladislaus IV of Hungary]] (1272–1290), it was decreed, in the presence of the papal ambassador, that every Jew appearing in public should wear on the left side of his upper garment a piece of red cloth; that any Christian transacting business with a Jew not so marked, or living in a house or on land together with any Jew, should be refused admittance to the Church services; and that a Christian entrusting any office to a Jew should be [[excommunicated]]. [[Andrew III of Hungary|Andrew III]] (1291–1301), the last king of the [[Árpád dynasty]], declared, in the ''privilegium'' granted by him to the community of Posonium ([[Bratislava]]), that the Jews in that city should enjoy all the liberties of citizens.{{sfn|Büchler|1904|pp=494–495}} </small></small></small></small>
| + | Na [[Synod w Budzie|synodzie w Budzie]] (1279), za panowania króla Węgier [[IV. László|Władysława IV]] (1272–1290), w obecności ambasadora papieskiego postanowiono, że każdy Żyd występujący publicznie powinien nosić po lewej stronie jego górna część garderoby to kawałek czerwonego materiału; że jakiemukolwiek chrześcijaninowi prowadzącemu interesy z Żydem, który nie jest tak oznaczony, lub mieszkającym w domu lub na ziemi razem z jakimkolwiek Żydem, należy odmówić przyjęcia na nabożeństwa kościelne i że chrześcijanin powierzający jakikolwiek urząd Żydowi powinien być ekskomunikowany. [[III. András|Andrzej III]] (1291–1301), ostatni król z dynastii [[Arpadowie|Arpadów]], w przywileju udzielonym gminie Posonium (Bratysława) zadeklarował, że Żydzi w tym mieście powinni cieszyć się wszystkimi swobodami obywateli<ref>Büchler 1904, str. 494–495.</ref>. |
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| | == Wypędzenie, odwołanie i prześladowanie (1349–1526) == | | == Wypędzenie, odwołanie i prześladowanie (1349–1526) == |
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| − | [[File:Synagogue Sopron Hungary.jpg|thumb|The Orthodox Synagogue of Sopron, Hungary, dates from the 1890s.]] | + | [[File:Synagogue Sopron Hungary.jpg|thumb|Synagoga ortodoksyjna w Sopron na Węgrzech pochodzi z 1890 roku.]] |
| − | [[File:Pottery artifacts Synagogue Sopron Hungary.jpg|thumb|Medieval pottery artifacts inside the Sopron Synagogue Museum.]] | + | [[File:Pottery artifacts Synagogue Sopron Hungary.jpg|thumb|Artefakty średniowiecznej ceramiki w Muzeum Synagogi w Sopron.]] |
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| − | Pod rządami obcych królów, którzy zasiedli na tronie Węgier po wygaśnięciu rodu Arpadów, węgierscy Żydzi byli prześladowani. W czasie czarnej śmierci (1349) zostali wypędzeni z kraju. Chociaż Żydzi zostali natychmiast ponownie przyjęci, byli ponownie prześladowani i po raz kolejny zostali wypędzeni w 1360 r. Przez króla Ludwika Wielkiego z Anjou (1342–1382). [18] Chociaż król Ludwik początkowo okazywał Żydom tolerancję we wczesnych latach swojego panowania, po podboju Bośni, podczas którego próbował zmusić miejscową ludność do przejścia z „heretyckiego” chrześcijaństwa Bogomila na katolicyzm, król Ludwik próbował narzucić konwersja również na węgierskich Żydów. Jednak nie udało mu się nawrócić ich na katolicyzm i wyrzucił ich [19]. Otrzymali je Aleksander Dobry Mołdawii i Dano I z Wołoszczyzny, który nadał im specjalne przywileje handlowe [18].
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| − | <small><small><small><small>Under the foreign kings who occupied the throne of Hungary on the extinction of the house of Arpad, the Hungarian Jews suffered many persecutions. During the time of the [[Black Death]] (1349), they were expelled from the country. Although the Jews were immediately readmitted, they were again persecuted, and were once again expelled in 1360 by King [[Louis I of Hungary|Louis the Great of Anjou]] (1342–1382).<ref name="Singer, 1906, p. 495">{{harvnb|Büchler|1904|p=495}}.</ref> Although King Louis had initially shown tolerance to the Jews during the early years of his reign, following his conquest of [[Bosnia]], during which he tried to force the local population to convert from the "heretic" [[Bogomilism|Bogomil Christianity]] to [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]], King Louis attempted to impose conversion on Hungarian Jews as well. However, he failed in his attempt to convert them to Catholicism, and expelled them.{{sfn|Patai|1996|p=56}} They were received by [[Alexandru cel Bun|Alexander the Good of Moldavia]] and [[Dano I of Wallachia]], the latter who afforded them special commercial privileges.<ref name="Singer, 1906, p. 495"/> </small></small></small></small>
| + | Pod rządami obcych królów, którzy zasiedli na tronie Węgier po wygaśnięciu rodu Arpadów, węgierscy Żydzi byli prześladowani. W czasie ''[https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Czarna_%C5%9Bmier%C4%87 czarnej śmierci]'' (1349) zostali wypędzeni z kraju. Chociaż Żydzi zostali natychmiast ponownie przyjęci, byli ponownie prześladowani i po raz kolejny zostali wypędzeni w 1360 r. przez króla [[I. Lajos|Ludwika Wielkiego] Andegaweńskiego (1342–1382).<ref name="Singer, 1906, str. 495">Büchler 1904, str. 495.</ref> Chociaż król Ludwik początkowo okazywał Żydom tolerancję we wczesnych latach swojego panowania, po podboju Bośni, podczas którego próbował zmusić miejscową ludność do przejścia z „heretyckiego” chrześcijaństwa [https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bogomili bogomiłów] na katolicyzm, król Ludwik próbował narzucić konwersję również na węgierskich Żydów. Jednak nie udało mu się nawrócić ich na katolicyzm i wyrzucił ich<ref>Patai 1996, str. 56.</ref>. Prawo pobytu nadali im [https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleksander_Dobry Aleksander Dobry] z Mołdawii i [https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dan_I_(hospodar_wo%C5%82oski) Dan I] z Wołoszczyzny, który nadali im specjalne przywileje handlowe<ref name="Singer, 1906, str. 495"/>. |
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| − | Kilka lat później, kiedy Węgry znalazły się w trudnej sytuacji finansowej, przypomniano Żydów. Stwierdzili, że podczas ich nieobecności król wprowadził zwyczaj Tödtbriefe, tj. Anulowania pociągnięciem pióra, na prośbę poddanego lub miasta, noty i akty hipoteczne Żydów. Ważnym urzędem utworzonym przez Ludwika był „sędzia wszystkich Żydów mieszkających na Węgrzech”, który został wybrany spośród dostojników kraju, palatynów i skarbników, i miał zastępcę, który mu pomagał. Jego obowiązkiem było pobieranie podatków od Żydów, ochrona ich przywilejów i wysłuchiwanie ich skarg, które ostatnio wymienione były częstsze od czasów panowania Zygmunta Luksemburga (1387–1437) [18]. | + | Kilka lat później, gdy Węgry znalazły się w trudnej sytuacji finansowej, przypomniano Żydów. Stwierdzili, że podczas ich nieobecności król wprowadził zwyczaj ''Tödtbriefe'', tj. anulowania pociągnięciem pióra, na prośbę poddanego lub miasta, noty i akty hipoteczne Żydów. Ważnym urzędem utworzonym przez Ludwika był „sędzia wszystkich Żydów mieszkających na Węgrzech”, który został wybrany spośród dostojników kraju, palatynów oraz skarbników i miał zastępcę, który mu pomagał. Jego obowiązkiem było pobieranie podatków od Żydów, ochrona ich przywilejów i wysłuchiwanie ich skarg, które ostatnio wymienione były częstsze od czasów panowania [[Zygmunt|Zygmunta Luksemburskiego]] (1387–1437)<ref name="Singer, 1906, str. 495"/>. |
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| − | <small><small><small><small>Some years later, when Hungary was in financial distress, the Jews were recalled. They found that during their absence the king had introduced the custom of ''Tödtbriefe'', i.e., cancelling by a stroke of his pen, on the request of a subject or a city, the notes and [[Mortgage law|mortgage]]-deeds of the Jews. An important office created by Louis was that of "judge of all the Jews living in Hungary," who was chosen from among the dignitaries of the country, the [[Palatine (Kingdom of Hungary)|palatine]]s, and [[treasurer]]s, and had a deputy to aid him. It was his duty to collect the [[taxes]] of the Jews, to protect their privileges, and to listen to their complaints, which last-named had become more frequent since the reign of [[Sigismund, Holy Roman Emperor|Sigismund Luxembourg]] (1387–1437).<ref name="Singer, 1906, p. 495"/> </small></small></small></small>
| + | Następcy Zygmunta: [[Albert]] (1437–1439), [[Władysław Posthumus]] (1453–1457) i [[Maciej|Maciej Korwin]] (1458–1490) również potwierdzili przywilej Beli IV. Maciej utworzył urząd prefekta żydowskiego na Węgrzech. Okres po śmierci Macieja był smutny dla węgierskich Żydów. Ledwo został pochowany, gdy ludzie na nich napadli, skonfiskowali ich majątek, odmówili spłaty należnych im długów i prześladowali ich ogólnie. Pretendent [[Jan Korwin]], nieślubny syn Macieja, wyrzucił ich z Taty, a król [[Władysław II]] (1490–1516), zawsze potrzebujący pieniędzy, nałożył na nich wysokie podatki. Za jego panowania po raz pierwszy spalono Żydów na stosie, wielu rozstrzelano w Trnavie w 1494 r. pod zarzutem mordu rytualnego<ref name="Singer, 1906, str. 495"/>. |
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| − | Następcy Zygmunta: Albert (1437–1439), Władysław Posthumus (1453–1457) i Macieja Korwina (1458–1490) również potwierdzili przywilej Béli IV. Matthias utworzył urząd prefekta żydowskiego na Węgrzech. Okres po śmierci Macieja był smutny dla węgierskich Żydów. Ledwo został pochowany, gdy ludzie na nich napadli, skonfiskowali ich majątek, odmówili spłaty należnych im długów i prześladowali ich ogólnie. Pretendent Jan Korwin, nieślubny syn Macieja, wyrzucił ich z Taty, a król Władysław II (1490–1516), zawsze potrzebujący pieniędzy, nałożył na nich wysokie podatki. Za jego panowania po raz pierwszy spalono Żydów na stosie, wielu rozstrzelano w Trnavie w 1494 r. Pod zarzutem mordu rytualnego [18].
| + | Węgierscy Żydzi w końcu zwrócili się do niemieckiego cesarza [[Maximilian I. (HRR)|Maksymiliana]] o ochronę. Z okazji ślubu [[II. Lajos|Ludwika II]] i arcyksiężnej [[Maria von Österreich|Marii]] (1512) cesarz za zgodą Władysława objął pod swoją opiekę prefekta [[Jakub Mendel|Jakuba Mendla]] z Budy wraz z rodziną i wszystkimi innymi węgierskimi Żydami, z wszystkimi prawami przysługującymi innym jego poddanym. Za następcy Władysława, Ludwika II (1516–1526) prześladowania Żydów były na porządku dziennym. Gorzkie uczucie do nich zostało częściowo spotęgowane przez fakt, że ochrzczony zastępca skarbnika [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emerich_Szerencs%C3%A9s Emerich Szerencsés] sprzeniewierzył fundusze publiczne<ref name="Singer, 1906, str. 495"/>. |
| − | | |
| − | <small><small><small><small>The successors of Sigismund: [[Albert II of Germany|Albert]] (1437–1439), [[Ladislaus Posthumus]] (1453–1457), and [[Matthias Corvinus]] (1458–1490) all likewise confirmed the ''privilegium'' of Béla IV. Matthias created the office of Jewish [[prefect]] in Hungary. The period following the death of Matthias was a sad one for the Hungarian Jews. He was hardly buried, when the people fell upon them, confiscated their property, refused to pay debts owing to them, and persecuted them generally. The pretender [[John Corvinus]], Matthias' illegitimate son, expelled them from [[Tata, Hungary|Tata]], and King [[Ladislaus II of Bohemia and Hungary|Ladislaus II]] (1490–1516), always in need of money, laid heavy taxes upon them. During his reign, Jews were for the first time burned at the stake, many being executed at [[Nagyszombat]] ([[Trnava]]) in 1494, on suspicion of [[blood libel|ritual murder]].<ref name="Singer, 1906, p. 495"/> </small></small></small></small>
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| − | | |
| − | Węgierscy Żydzi w końcu zwrócili się do niemieckiego cesarza Maksymiliana o ochronę. Z okazji ślubu Ludwika II i arcyksiężnej Marii (1512) cesarz za zgodą Władysława objął pod swoją opiekę prefekta Jakuba Mendla z Budy wraz z rodziną i wszystkimi innymi węgierskimi Żydami, według nich wszystkie prawa przysługujące innym jego poddanym. Za następcy Władysława Ludwika II (1516–1526) prześladowania Żydów były na porządku dziennym. Gorzkie uczucie do nich zostało częściowo spotęgowane przez fakt, że ochrzczony zastępca skarbnika Emerich Lucky sprzeniewierzył fundusze publiczne [18]. | |
| − | | |
| − | <small><small><small><small>The Hungarian Jews finally applied to the German Emperor [[Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor|Maximilian]] for protection. On the occasion of the marriage of [[Louis II of Hungary and Bohemia|Louis II]] and the [[Mary of Austria (1505-1558)|archduchess Maria]] (1512), the emperor, with the consent of Ladislaus, took the prefect, [[Jacob Mendel of Buda]], together with his family and all the other Hungarian Jews, under his protection, according to them all the rights enjoyed by his other subjects. Under Ladislaus' successor, Louis II (1516–1526), persecution of the Jews was a common occurrence. The bitter feeling against them was in part augmented by the fact that the baptized [[Emerich Szerencsés]], the deputy treasurer, embezzled the public funds.<ref name="Singer, 1906, p. 495"/> </small></small></small></small>
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| | '''[...]''' | | '''[...]''' |
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| − | == Revolution and emancipation (1848–1849) == | + | == Zobacz także == |
| − | ===Jews and the Hungarian Revolution=== <!-- polite note: Redirect [[Hungarian Jews in the Revolution]] links here -->
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| − | Jews entered the national guard as early as March 1848; although they were excluded from certain cities, they reentered as soon as the danger to the country seemed greater than the hatred of the citizens. At [[Pest, Hungary|Pest]] the Jewish national guard formed a separate division. When the national guards of [[Pápa]] were mobilized against the [[Croatians]], [[Leopold Löw]], rabbi of Pápa, joined the Hungarian ranks, inspiring his companions by his words of encouragement. Jews were also to be found in the volunteer corps, and among the ''[[Royal Hungarian Landwehr|honvéd]]'' and ''[[landsturm]]''; and they constituted one-third of the volunteer division of Pest that marched along the [[Drava]] against the Croatians, being blessed by Rabbi Schwab on June 22, 1848.<ref name="Singer, 1906, p. 500"/>
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| − | Many Jews throughout the country joined the army to fight for their fatherland; among them, [[Adolf Hübsch]], subsequently rabbi at [[New York City]]; [[Solomon Marcus Schiller-Szinessy]], afterward lecturer at the [[University of Cambridge]]; and [[Ignatz Einhorn]], who, under the name of "Eduard Horn," subsequently became state secretary of the [[Hungarian Ministry of Commerce]]. The rebellious [[Serbs|Serbians]] slew the Jews at [[Senta|Zenta]] who sympathized with Hungary; among them, Rabbi [[Israel Ullmann]] and [[Jacob Münz]], son of [[Moses Münz]] of [[Óbuda]] The conduct of the Jewish soldiers in the Hungarian army was highly commended by Generals [[György Klapka|Klapka]] and [[Artúr Görgei|Görgey]]. Einhorn estimated the number of Jewish soldiers who took part in the [[Hungarian Revolution of 1848|Hungarian Revolution]] to be 20,000; but this is most likely exaggerated, as [[Béla Bernstein]] enumerates only 755 combatants by name in his work, ''Az 1848-49-iki Magyar Szabadságharcz és a Zsidók'' (Budapest, 1898).{{sfn|Büchler|1904|pp=500–501}}
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| − | The Hungarian Jews served their country not only with the sword, but also with funds. Communities and individuals, [[Chevra Kadisha]], and other Jewish societies, freely contributed silver and gold, armor and provisions, clothed and fed the soldiers, and furnished lint and other medical supplies to the Hungarian camps. Meanwhile, they did not forget to take steps to obtain their rights as citizens. When the Diet of 1847–1848 (in which, according to ancient law, only the [[nobles]] and those having the rights of nobles might take part) was dissolved (April 11), and the new Parliament — at which under the new laws the delegates elected by the commons also appeared — was convened at Pest (July 2, 1848), the Jews hopefully looked forward to the deliberations of the new body.<ref name="Singer, 1906, p. 501">{{harvnb|Büchler|1904|p=501}}.</ref>
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| − | | |
| − | ===Brief emancipation and aftermath, 1849===
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| − | Many Jews thought to pave the way for emancipation by a radical reform of their religious life. They thought this might ease their way, as legislators in the Diets and articles printed in the press suggested that the Jews should not receive equal civic rights until they reformed their religious practices. This reform had been first demanded in the session of 1839–1840. From this session onward, the press and general assemblies pushed for religious reform. Several counties instructed their representatives not to vote for the emancipation of the Jews until they desisted from practising the externals of their religion.<ref name="Singer, 1906, p. 501"/>
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| − | For the purpose of urging [[Jewish emancipation]], all the Jews of Hungary sent delegates to a conference at Pest on July 5, 1848. It chose a commission of ten members to lobby with the Diet for emancipation. The commission delegates were instructed not to make any concessions related to practicing the Jewish faith. The commission soon after addressed a petition to the Parliament for emancipation, but it proved ineffective.<ref name="Singer, 1906, p. 501"/>
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| − | The national assembly at [[Szeged]] granted emancipation of Jews on Saturday, the eve of the [[Ninth of Av]] (July 28, 1849). The bill, which was quickly debated and immediately became a law, fulfilled the hopes of the Reform party. The Jews obtained full citizenship. The Ministry of the Interior was ordered to call a convention of Jewish [[minister of religion|ministers]] and [[laymen]] for the purpose of drafting a [[confession of faith]], and of inducing the Jews to organize their religious life in conformity with the demands of the time, for instance, business hours on Saturday, the Jewish Sabbath. The bill included the clause referring to marriages between Jews and Christians, which clause both [[Lajos Kossuth]] and the Reform party advocated.<ref name="Singer, 1906, p. 501"/>
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| − | The Jews' civic liberty lasted for just two weeks. After the Hungarian army's [[surrender at Világos]] to [[Russia]]n troops, which had come to aid the Austrians in suppressing the Hungarian struggle for liberty, the Jews were severely punished by new authorities for having taken part in the uprising. Field Marshal [[Julius Jacob von Haynau]], the new governor of Hungary, imposed heavy war-taxes upon them, especially upon the communities of [[Pest, Hungary|Pest]] and [[Óbuda]], which had already been heavily taxed by [[Alfred I, Prince of Windisch-Grätz]], commander-in-chief of the Austrian army, on his triumphant entry into the Hungarian capital at the beginning of 1849. Haynau punished the communities of [[Kecskemét]], [[Nagykőrös]], [[Cegléd]], [[Albertirsa]], Szeged, and Szabadka (now [[Subotica]], Serbia) with equal severity. Numerous Jews were imprisoned and executed; others sought refuge in [[emigration]].{{sfn|Büchler|1904|pp=501–502}}
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| − | Several communities petitioned to be relieved of the war taxes. The ministry of war, however, increased the burden, requiring that the communities of Pest, Óbuda, Kecskemét, Czegléd, Nagykőrös, and Irsa should pay this tax not in kind, but in currency to the amount of 2,300,000 [[Austro-Hungarian gulden|gulden]]. As the communities were unable to collect such monies, they petitioned the government to remit it. The Jewish communities of the entire country were ordered to share in raising the sum, on the grounds that most of the Jews of Hungary had supported the Revolution. Only the communities of Temesvár (now [[Timișoara]], Romania) and Pressburg (now [[Bratislava]], Slovakia) were exempted from this order, as they remained loyal to the existing Austrian government. The military commission added a clause to tax requirements, to the effect that individuals or communities might be exempted from the punishment, if they could prove by documents or witnesses, before a commission to be appointed, that they had not taken part in the Revolution, either by word or deed, morally or materially. The Jews refused this means of clearing themselves. They declared to be willing to redeem the tax by collecting a certain sum for a national school fund. Emperor [[Franz Joseph I of Austria|Franz Joseph]] remitted the war-tax (September 20, 1850), but ordered that the Jews of Hungary without distinction should contribute toward a Jewish school fund of 1,000,000 gulden; they raised this sum within a few years.{{sfn|Büchler|1904|p=502}}
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| − | == Struggles for a second emancipation (1859–1867) ==
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| − | [[File:Falk Miksa.JPG|thumb|Prominent newspaper editor and journalist [[Miksa Falk|Miksa (Maxmilian) Falk]] returned to Hungary from Vienna following the emancipation in 1867. He was a national-level politician from 1875 to 1905.]]
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| − | While the House of Habsburg controlled Hungary, emancipation of Jews was postponed. When the Austrian troops were defeated in [[Italy]] in 1859, activists pressed for liberty. In that year the cabinet, with Emperor Franz Joseph in the chair, decreed that the status of the Jews should be regulated in agreement with the times, but with due regard for the conditions obtaining in the several localities and provinces. When the emperor convened the Diet on April 2, 1861, Jews pushed for emancipation but the early dissolution of that body prevented it from taking action in the matter.<ref name="Singer, 1906, p. 502">{{harvnb|Büchler|1904|p=502}}.</ref>
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| − | The decade of absolutism in Hungary (1849–1859) resulted in Jews establishing schools, most of which were in charge of trained teachers. Based on the Jewish school fund, the government organized model schools at [[Sátoraljaújhely]], Temesvár ([[Timișoara]]), [[Pécs]], and [[Pest, Hungary|Pest]]. In Pest the [[Israelite State Teachers' Seminary]] was founded in 1859, the principals of which have included [[Abraham Lederer]], [[Heinrich Deutsch]], and [[József Bánóczi]].<ref name="Singer, 1906, p. 502"/>
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| − | When the Parliament dissolved in 1861, the emancipation of the Jews was deferred to the coronation of Franz Joseph. On December 22, 1867, the question came before the lower house, and on the favorable report of [[Kálmán Tisza]] and [[Zsigmond Bernáth]], a bill in favor of emancipation was adopted; it was passed by the upper house on the following day.<ref name="Singer, 1906, p. 502"/> Although the Antisemitic Party was represented in the Parliament, it was not taken seriously by the political elite of the country. Its agitation against Jews was not successful (see [[Tiszaeszlár affair]]).
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| − | On October 4, 1877, the [[Budapest University of Jewish Studies]] opened in [[Budapest]]. The university is still operating, celebrating its 130th anniversary on October 4, 2007. Since its opening, it has been the only Jewish institute in all of [[Central Europe|Central]] and [[Eastern Europe]].
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| − | In the 1890 Hungarian census, 64.0% of the Jewish population were counted as ethnic Hungarian by mother tongue, 33.1% as German <ref>http://www.bibl.u-szeged.hu/porta/szint/tarsad/szocio/studia/studia.htm</ref> 1.9% as Slovak, 0.8% as Romanian, and 0.2% as Ruthenian.
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| − | == Austria-Hungary (1867–1918) ==
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| − | [[File:02 Pecs, Hungary - Great Synagogue.jpg|thumb|Romantic style Great Synagogue in Pécs, built by [[Neolog Judaism|Neolog]] community in 1869.]]
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| − | [[File:Szeged synagogue SF.jpg|thumb|[[Szeged Synagogue]]]]
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| − | === Family names ===
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| − | Most Jews did not have family names before 1783. Some family names were recorded for Jewish families:
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| − | * 1050: Jászkonti
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| − | * 1263: Farkas
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| − | * 1350: Hosszú
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| − | * 16th century: Cseh, Jakab, Gazdag, Fekete, Nagy, Kis
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| − | * 1780: Bárány, Csonka, Horpács, Jónap, Kohányi, Kossuth, Kosztolányi, Lengyel, Lőrincz, Lukács, Szarvas, Szabó, Varga.
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| − | Emperor Joseph II believed that Germanization could facilitate the centralization of his empire. Beginning in 1783, he ordered Jews to either choose or be given German family names by local committees. The actions were dependent on local conditions.
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| − | With the rise of Hungarian nationalism, the first wave of Magyarization of family names occurred between 1840 and 1849. After the Hungarian revolution, this process was stopped until 1867. After the [[Ausgleich]], many Jews changed their family names from German to Hungarian.
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| − | In 1942 during World War II, when Hungary became allied with Germany, the Hungarian Defense Ministry was tasked with "race validation." Its officials complained that no Hungarian or German names were "safe," as Jews might have any name. They deemed Slavic names to be "safer", but the decree listed 58 Slavic-sounding names regularly held by Jews.<ref>Decree to quicken the process of race validation, May 16, 1942 – quoted in ''Fegyvertelen álltak az aknamezőkön'', 1962, edited by Elek Karsai, volume 2, p. 8</ref>
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| − | === Population statistics ===
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| − | ==== 1890 / 1900 / 1910 census summaries ====
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| − | {{Unreferenced section|date=January 2020}}
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| − | {| class="wikitable"
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| − | |-
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| − | !
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| − | ! 1890
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| − | ! 1900
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| − | ! 1910
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| − | |-
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| − | | Total population of Hungary, without Croatia
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| − | | 15,162,988
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| − | | 16,838,255
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| − | | 18,264,533
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| − | |-
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| − | | Emigration to the US in the previous decade, '00-'09
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| − | | 164,119
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| − | | 261,444
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| − | | 1,162,271
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| − | |-
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| − | | Jewish population, again without Croatia
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| − | | 707,961
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| − | | 831,162
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| − | | 911,227
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| − | |-
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| − | | Increase of the total population in the previous decade
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| − | | 10.28%
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| − | | 11.05%
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| − | | 8.47%
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| − | |-
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| − | | (Emigration to the US in the previous decade, '00-'09) / population at previous census
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| − | | 1.19%
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| − | | 1.72%
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| − | | 6.90%
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| − | |-
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| − | | Increase of the Jewish population in the previous decade
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| − | | 13.31%
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| − | | 17.40%
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| − | | 9.62%
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| − | |-
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| − | | Jewish/Total
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| − | | 4.67%
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| − | | 4.94%
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| − | | 4.99%
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| − | |}
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| − | Almost a quarter (22.35%) of the Jews of Hungary lived in Budapest in 1910. Some of the surviving large synagogues in Budapest include the following:
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| − | <gallery>
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| − | File:Dohany Street Synagogue Pest Hungary.jpg|Interior of [[Dohány Street Synagogue]]
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| − | File:Hegedus Gyula Utca Synagogue Pest Hungary.jpg|Hegedus Gyula Utca Synagogue
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| − | File:Rumbach St Synagogue Pest Hungary 2.jpg|[[Rumbach Street Synagogue]]
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| − | File:Vasvari Pal St Synagogue Pest Hungary.jpg|Vasvari Pal Street Synagogue
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| − | File:Kazinczy St Orthodox Synagogue Pest Hungary.jpg|[[Kazinczy Street Synagogue, Budapest|Kazinczy Street Orthodox Synagogue]]
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| − | </gallery>
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| − | ==== 1910 census ====
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| − | According to the 1910 census, the number of Jews was 911,227, or 4.99% of the 18,264,533 people living in Hungary (In addition, there were 21,231 Jews in autonomous Croatia-Slavonia). This was a 28.7% increase in absolute terms since the 1890 census, and a 0.3% increase (from 4.7%) in the overall population of Hungary. At the time, the Jewish natural growth rate was higher than the Christian (although the difference had been narrowing), but so was the emigration rate, mainly to the United States. (The total emigration from Austria-Hungary to the U.S. in 1881–1912 was 3,688,000 people, including 324,000 Jews (8.78%). In the 1880–1913 period, a total of 2,019,000 people emigrated from Hungary to the US. Thus, an estimated 177,000 Jews emigrated from Hungary to the US during this total period.){{citation needed|date=January 2020}}
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| − | The net loss for Judaism due to conversions was relatively low before the end of the Great War: 240 people/year between 1896 and 1900, 404 between 1901 and 1910, and 435 people/year between 1911 and 1917. According to records, 10,530 people left Judaism, and 2,244 converted to Judaism between 1896 and 1917.<ref name="ReferenceB">''Magyar Statisztikai Szemle 1939-10'', p. 1115</ref>
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| − | | |
| − | The majority (75.7%) of the Jewish population reported Hungarian as their primary language, so they were counted as ethnically Hungarian in the census. The Yiddish speakers were counted as ethnically German. According to this classification, 6.94% of the ethnic Hungarians and 11.63% of the Germans of Hungary were Jewish. In total, Hungarian speakers made up a 54.45% majority in Hungary; German speakers (including those who spoke Yiddish), made up 10.42% of the population.{{citation needed|date=January 2019}}
| |
| − | | |
| − | Population of the capital, Budapest, was 23% Jewish (about the same ratio as in New York City). This community had established numerous religious and educational institutions. Pest was more Jewish than Buda. The prosperity, cultural, and financial prominence of Budapest's large Jewish community attested to its successful integration. Indeed, commentators opined in 1911 that Hungary had "absorbed" their Jews and "it has come to pass that there is no anti-Semitism in Budapest, although the Hebrew element is proportionately much larger (21% as compared to 9%) than it is in Vienna, the Mecca of the Jew-baiter"<ref>Encyclopædia Britannica 1911, Budapest article</ref> At that time [[Karl Lueger]], mayor of [[Vienna]] referred to the capital as [[Judapest]], alluding to the high proportion of Jews. Budapest had the third largest Jewish population among the world's cities, after New York and Warsaw.{{citation needed|date=January 2020}}
| |
| − | | |
| − | Jews in Hungary were long prevented from owning land, which resulted in many going into business. In 1910, 60.96% of merchants,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://mek.niif.hu/04000/04093/html/0479.html |title=0479.png |publisher=Mek.niif.hu |date= |access-date=2013-02-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121005004824/http://mek.niif.hu/04000/04093/html/0479.html |archive-date=2012-10-05 |url-status=live |df= }}</ref> 58.11% of the book printers, 41.75% of the innkeepers, 24.42% of the bakers, 24.07% of the butchers, 21.04% of the tailors, and 8.90% of the shoemakers of Hungary were Jewish.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://mek.niif.hu/04000/04093/html/0400.html |title=0400.png |publisher=Mek.niif.hu |date= |access-date=2013-02-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121005004807/http://mek.niif.hu/04000/04093/html/0400.html |archive-date=2012-10-05 |url-status=live |df= }}</ref> 48.5% of the physicians in the country (2701 out of 5565) were Jewish.{{sfn|Patai|1996|p=435}} In the 1893–1913 period, Jews made up roughly 20% of the students of the gimnázium high school (where classical subjects were emphasized) students and 37% of reál high school (where practical subjects were emphasized).{{citation needed|date=January 2020}}
| |
| − | | |
| − | The strong class divisions of Hungary were represented in the Jewish population. About 3.1% of the Jews belonged to the "large employer" and "agricultural landowner of more than 100 hold, i.e. 57 hectares" class, 3.2% to the "small (<100 hold) landholder" class, 34.4% to the "working", i.e. wage-earning employee class, while 59.3% belonged to the self-employed or salary-earning middle class.<ref>''Magyarország tortenete, 1890–1918'', Budapest 1978, p. 465</ref>
| |
| − | | |
| − | There was also [[Schism in Hungarian Jewry|religious division, with three denominations.]] Budapest, the South and West had a [[Neolog Judaism|Neolog]] majority (related to modern US Conservative and [[Reform Judaism]]- the [[kipah]] and organ were both used in religious worship in the synagogues). Traditionalists ("Status quo ante") were the smallest of the three, mainly in the North. The East and North of the country were overwhelmingly Orthodox (more orthodox than "status quo ante"). In broad terms, Jews whose ancestors had come from [[Moravia]] in the 18th century tended to become Neolog at the split in 1869; those whose ancestors were from [[Galicia (Eastern Europe)|Galicia]] identified as Orthodox.{{citation needed|date=January 2019}}
| |
| − | | |
| − | In absolute numbers, Budapest had by far the largest number of Jews (203,000), followed by Nagyvárad ([[Oradea]]) with 15,000, [[Újpest]] and [[Miskolc]] with about 10,000 each, Máramarossziget ([[Sighetu Marmaţiei]]), Munkács ([[Mukachevo]]), Pozsony ([[Bratislava]]), [[Debrecen]] with 8,000, Kolozsvár ([[Cluj-Napoca]]), Szatmárnémeti ([[Satu Mare]]), Temesvár ([[Timișoara]]), Kassa ([[Košice]]) with about 7,000 each.{{citation needed|date=January 2019}}
| |
| − | | |
| − | == Interwar (1918–1939) ==
| |
| − | === Population ===
| |
| − | [[File:Magyar JNF Box (2573452490).jpg|thumb|right|[[Hungarians|Magyar]] Jewish [[tzedaka]] box, possibly for donations to the [[Jewish National Fund|Keren Kayemet/JNF]].]]Using data from the 1910 census, 51.7% of the Hungarian Jews lived in territories that stayed inside the "small" Hungary after 1921, 25.5% (232,000) lived in territories that later became part of Czechoslovakia, 19.5% (178,000) became part of Romania, 2.6% (23,000) became part of Yugoslavia, 0.5% (5,000) became part of Austria and finally 0.2% (2,000) lived in Fiume, which became part of Italy after 1924.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://mek.niif.hu/04000/04093/html/0563.html |title=0563.png |publisher=Mek.niif.hu |date= |access-date=2013-02-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121005084959/http://mek.niif.hu/04000/04093/html/0563.html |archive-date=2012-10-05 |url-status=live |df= }}</ref> According to the censuses of 1930–1931, 238,460/192,833/about 22,000 Jews lived in parts of Czechoslovakia/Romania/Yugoslavia formerly belonging to Hungary, which means that the overall number of people declaring themselves Jewish remained unchanged in the Carpathian basin between 1910 and 1930 [a decrease of 26,000 in the post-WW1 Hungary, a 6,000 increase in Czechoslovakia and a 15,000 increase in Romania].{{citation needed|date=January 2019}}
| |
| − | | |
| − | According to the census of December 1920 in the "small" Hungary, the percentage of Jews increased in the preceding decade in Sátoraljaújhely (to 30.4%), Budapest (23.2%), Újpest (20.0%), Nyíregyháza (11.7%), Debrecen (9.9%), Pécs (9.0%), Sopron (7.5%), Makó (6.4%), Rákospalota (6.1%), Kispest (5.6%) and Békéscsaba (to 5.6%), while decreased in the other 27 towns with more than 20 thousand inhabitants.<ref>''Magyar Statisztikai Szemle 1923'', p. 308</ref> Overall, 31.1% of the Jewish population lived in villages and towns with less than 20 thousand inhabitants.{{citation needed|date=January 2020}}
| |
| − |
| |
| − | In 1920, 46.3% of the medical doctors, 41.2% of the veterinarians, 21.4% of the pharmacists of Hungary were Jewish, as well as 34.3% of the journalists, 24.5% of performers of music, 22.7% of the theater actors, 16.8% of the painters and sculptors.<ref name="mek.niif.hu">{{cite web |url=http://mek.niif.hu/04000/04093/html/0570.html |title=0570.png |publisher=Mek.niif.hu |date= |access-date=2013-02-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121005085029/http://mek.niif.hu/04000/04093/html/0570.html |archive-date=2012-10-05 |url-status=live |df= }}</ref> Among the owners of land of more than 1000 hold, i.e. 570 hectares, 19.6% were Jewish.<ref name=autogenerated3>{{cite web |url=http://mek.niif.hu/04000/04093/html/0571.html |title=0571.png |publisher=Mek.niif.hu |date= |access-date=2013-02-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121005085231/http://mek.niif.hu/04000/04093/html/0571.html |archive-date=2012-10-05 |url-status=live |df= }}</ref> Among the 2739 factories in Hungary, 40.5% had a Jewish owner.<ref name="mek.niif.hu"/>
| |
| − | | |
| − | The following table shows the number of people who declared to be Israelite (Jewish) at the censuses inside the post-WWI territory of Hungary. Between 1920 and 1945, it was illegal for Hungarians to fail to declare their religion A person's religion was written on their birth certificate, marriage license (except in 1919, during the short-lived Commune, see [[Hungarian Soviet Republic]]), and even on a child's school grade reports.{{citation needed|date=January 2020}}
| |
| − | | |
| − | {| class="wikitable"
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | ! Census
| |
| − | ! 12.31.1910 (inside 1937 borders)
| |
| − | ! 12.31.1920
| |
| − | ! 12.31.1930
| |
| − | ! 01.31.1941 (inside 1937 borders)
| |
| − | ! 1949
| |
| − | ! 2001
| |
| − | ! 2011
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | | "izraelita"
| |
| − | | 471,355
| |
| − | | 473,310
| |
| − | | 444,567
| |
| − | | 400,981
| |
| − | | 133,861
| |
| − | | 12,871
| |
| − | | 10,965
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | | % of total
| |
| − | | 6.19%
| |
| − | | 5.93%
| |
| − | | 5.12%
| |
| − | | 4.30%
| |
| − | | 1.45%
| |
| − | | 0.13%
| |
| − | | 0.11%
| |
| − | |}
| |
| − | | |
| − | The net loss for Judaism due to official conversions was 26,652 people between 1919 and 1938, while 4,288 people converted into the faith, 30,940 left it. The endpoints of this period, 1919–1920 (white terror) and 1938 (anti-Jewish law) contributed to more than half of this loss; between 1921 and 1930, the net loss rested around pre-war levels (260 people/year).:<ref name="ReferenceB"/>
| |
| − | | |
| − | {| class="wikitable"
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | !
| |
| − | ! 1896–1900 (pre-WWI borders)
| |
| − | ! 1901–1910 (pre-WWI borders)
| |
| − | ! 1911–1917 (pre-WWI borders)
| |
| − | ! 1919–1920
| |
| − | ! 1921–1930
| |
| − | ! 1931–1937
| |
| − | ! 1938 alone
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | | Total years
| |
| − | | 5
| |
| − | | 10
| |
| − | | 7
| |
| − | | 2
| |
| − | | 10
| |
| − | | 7
| |
| − | | 1
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | | Converted from Judaism
| |
| − | | 1,681
| |
| − | | 5,033
| |
| − | | 3,816
| |
| − | | 9,103
| |
| − | | 5,315
| |
| − | | 7,936
| |
| − | | 8,586
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | | Converted to Judaism
| |
| − | | 481
| |
| − | | 994
| |
| − | | 769
| |
| − | | 316
| |
| − | | 2,718
| |
| − | | 1,156
| |
| − | | 98
| |
| − | |}
| |
| − | | |
| − | {| class="wikitable"
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | ! Population of Budapest
| |
| − | ! 1851<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mek.iif.hu/porta/szint/egyeb/lexikon/pallas/html/016/pc001672.html |title=Pallas lexikona |publisher=Mek.iif.hu |date= |access-date=2013-02-13}}</ref>
| |
| − | ! 1869
| |
| − | ! 1880
| |
| − | ! 1890
| |
| − | ! 1900
| |
| − | ! 1910
| |
| − | ! 1920
| |
| − | ! 1930
| |
| − | ! 1941
| |
| − | ! 1949
| |
| − | ! 2001 (Greater)
| |
| − | ! 2011 (Greater)
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | | Total
| |
| − | | 178,062
| |
| − | | 270,476
| |
| − | | 355,682
| |
| − | | 486,671
| |
| − | | 703,448
| |
| − | | 880,371
| |
| − | | 928,996
| |
| − | | 1,006,184
| |
| − | | 1,164,963
| |
| − | | 1,057,912
| |
| − | | 1,777,921
| |
| − | | 1,729,040
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | | Jewish
| |
| − | | 26,887 (15.1%)
| |
| − | | 44,890 (16.6%)
| |
| − | | 70,227 (19.7%)
| |
| − | | 102,377 (21.0%)
| |
| − | | 166,198 (23.6%)o
| |
| − | | 203,687 (23.1%)
| |
| − | | 215,512 (23.2%)
| |
| − | | 204,371 (20.3%)
| |
| − | | 184,453 (15.8%)
| |
| − | | 96,537 (9.1%)
| |
| − | | 9,468 (0.5%)<ref>[http://portal.ksh.hu/pls/portal/cp.hnt_telep?NN=13578 In addition, 35.6% of the people of Budapest were atheists, non-religious or did not want to answer the question about their religion]</ref>
| |
| − | | 7,925 (0.5%)<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.ksh.hu/docs/hun/xftp/idoszaki/nepsz2011/nepsz_orsz_2011.pdf |title=In addition, 56.8% of the people of Budapest were atheists, non-religious or did not want to answer the question about their religion |access-date=2013-03-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130418022116/http://www.ksh.hu/docs/hun/xftp/idoszaki/nepsz2011/nepsz_orsz_2011.pdf |archive-date=2013-04-18 |url-status=live |df= }}</ref>
| |
| − | |}<ref>Budapest Székesfőváros Statisztikai Évkönyve az 1944–1946. évekről, KSH, Budapest 1948, p. 14 (Hungarian)</ref><ref>1949. évi népszámlálás, 9. Demográfiai eredmények, KSH, Budapest 1950, p. 324 (Hungarian)</ref><ref>1949. évi népszámlálás, vallási adatok településenként, KSH, Budapest 1995, p. 17 (Hungarian)</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nepszamlalas.hu/hun/kotetek/06/01/data/tabhun/4/load01_10_0.html |title=Population by denomination, 2001 census |publisher=Nepszamlalas.hu |date= |access-date=2013-02-13}}</ref>
| |
| − | | |
| − | In 1926, the districts I, II, III of Buda were Jewish 8%,11%,10% respectively. The 19,000 Jews of Buda constituted about 9.3% of both the total population of Buda and the entire Jewish population of Budapest. On the left (Pest) side of the Danube, downtown Pest (Belváros, district IV then) was 18% Jewish. Districts V (31%), VI (28%), VII (36%), VIII (22%), IX (13%) had large Jewish populations, while district X had 6%. The four Neolog communities of Budapest (I-II, III, IV-IX, X) had a total of 66,300 members paying their dues, while the Orthodox community had about 7,000 members paying religious taxes.{{citation needed|date=January 2019}}
| |
| − | | |
| − | In the countryside of the post-WW1 Hungary, the Orthodox had a slight edge (about 49%) over the Neolog (46%). Budapest and countryside combined, 65.72% of the 444,567 Jews belonged to Neolog communities, 5.03% to Status quo ante, while 29.25% were Orthodox in 1930. The Jewish communities suffered a 5.6% decline in the 1910–1930 period, on the territory of the "small" Hungary, due to emigration and conversion.{{citation needed|date=January 2019}}
| |
| − | | |
| − | The Jews of Hungary were fairly well integrated into Hungarian society by the time of the [[First World War]]. Class distinction was very significant in Hungary in general, and among the Jewish population in particular. Rich bankers, factory owners, lower middle class artisans and poor factory workers did not mingle easily. In 1926, there were 50,761 Jewish families living in Budapest. Of that number, 65% lived in apartments that contained one or two rooms, 30% had three or four rooms, while 5% lived in apartments with more than 4 rooms.{{citation needed|date=January 2019}}
| |
| − | | |
| − | {| class="wikitable"
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | ! # of households
| |
| − | ! max 1 room
| |
| − | ! 2 rooms
| |
| − | ! 3 rooms
| |
| − | ! 4 rooms
| |
| − | ! 5 rooms
| |
| − | ! min 6 rooms
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | | Jewish= 50,761
| |
| − | | 25.4%
| |
| − | | 39.6%
| |
| − | | 21.2%
| |
| − | | 9.2%
| |
| − | | 3.1%
| |
| − | | 1.5%
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | | Christian = 159,113
| |
| − | | 63.3%
| |
| − | | 22.1%
| |
| − | | 8.4%
| |
| − | | 3.8%
| |
| − | | 1.4%
| |
| − | | 1.0%
| |
| − | |}<ref>''Magyar Zsidó Lexikon.'' Budapest, 1929</ref>
| |
| − | | |
| − | Education. The following chart illustrates the effect of the 1920 "[[Numerus clausus]]" Law on the percentage of Jewish university students at two Budapest Universities.
| |
| − | | |
| − | {| class="wikitable"
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | ! Jewish students
| |
| − | ! 1913
| |
| − | ! 1925 Spring
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | | [[Budapest University of Sciences]]
| |
| − | | 34.1%
| |
| − | | 7.7%
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | | [[Budapest University of Technology and Economics]]
| |
| − | | 31.9%
| |
| − | | 8.8%
| |
| − | |}<ref name=autogenerated3 />{{sfn|Patai|1996|p=474}}
| |
| − | | |
| − | Those who could afford went to study to other European countries like Austria, Germany, Italy and Czechoslovakia. In 1930, of all males aged six and older,{{sfn|Patai|1996|p=516}}
| |
| − | | |
| − | {| class="wikitable"
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | | Schooling
| |
| − | ! >= 8 years
| |
| − | ! >= 12 years
| |
| − | ! university degree
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | | General population
| |
| − | | 10.8%
| |
| − | | 5.8%
| |
| − | | 2.1%
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | | Jews in the countryside
| |
| − | | 36.6%
| |
| − | | 17.0%
| |
| − | | 5.0%
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | | Jews in Budapest
| |
| − | | 56.5%
| |
| − | | 31.7%
| |
| − | | 8.1%
| |
| − | |}
| |
| − | | |
| − | Seven of the thirteen Nobel prize winners born in Hungary are Jewish. In sports, 55.6% of the individual gold medal winners of Hungary at the Summer Olympic Games between 1896 and 1912 were Jewish. This number dropped to 17.6% in the interwar period of 1924–1936.{{citation needed|date=January 2019}}
| |
| − | | |
| − | {| class="wikitable"
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | ! Period
| |
| − | ! 1896–1912
| |
| − | ! 1924–1936
| |
| − | ! 1948–1956
| |
| − | ! 1960–1972
| |
| − | ! 1976–1992 (1984 excluded)
| |
| − | ! 1996–2008
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | | # of Olympics
| |
| − | | 5
| |
| − | | 4
| |
| − | | 3
| |
| − | | 4
| |
| − | | 4
| |
| − | | 4
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | | Total Golds
| |
| − | | 442
| |
| − | | 482
| |
| − | | 440
| |
| − | | 684
| |
| − | | 903
| |
| − | |1172
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | | Hungarian Golds
| |
| − | | 11
| |
| − | | 22
| |
| − | | 35
| |
| − | | 32
| |
| − | | 33
| |
| − | | 26
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | | Hungarian/total World
| |
| − | | 2.49%
| |
| − | | 4.56%
| |
| − | | 7.95%
| |
| − | | 4.68%
| |
| − | | 3.65%
| |
| − | | 2.22%
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | | Hungarian Individual Gold
| |
| − | | 9
| |
| − | | 17
| |
| − | | 26
| |
| − | | 22
| |
| − | | 27
| |
| − | | 16
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | | Hungarian Jewish Individual
| |
| − | | 5
| |
| − | | 3
| |
| − | | 6
| |
| − | | 4
| |
| − | | 0
| |
| − | | 0
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | | Jewish/total individual Hungarian
| |
| − | | 55.56%
| |
| − | | 17.65%
| |
| − | | 23.08%
| |
| − | | 18.18%
| |
| − | | 0%
| |
| − | | 0%
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | | Jews in Gold Teams
| |
| − | | 57.14% = 8/14
| |
| − | | 28.21%= 11/39
| |
| − | |
| |
| − | |
| |
| − | |
| |
| − | |
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | | Jews in population
| |
| − | | 4.99% (1910)
| |
| − | | 5.12% (1930)
| |
| − | | 1.45% (1949)
| |
| − | |
| |
| − | |
| |
| − | | 0.13% (2001)
| |
| − | |}
| |
| − | | |
| − | == Revolution ==
| |
| − | {{Main|Revolutions and interventions in Hungary (1918–20)}}
| |
| − | More than 10,000 Jews died and thousands were wounded and disabled fighting for Hungary in [[World War I]]. But these sacrifices by patriotic Hungarian Jews may have been outweighed by the chaotic events following the war's end.{{citation needed|date=January 2020}}
| |
| − | | |
| − | With the defeat and dissolution of the [[Austro-Hungarian Empire]], Hungary would be forced by the Allies to adhere to the [[Treaty of Trianon]], which ceded to neighboring nations fully two-thirds of Hungary's imperial territory and two thirds of its population, including a third of its ethnically Magyar citizens and many Jews. These losses provoked deep anger and hostility in the remaining Hungarian population.<ref name="Mason, John W 2000">Mason, John W; "Hungary's Battle For Memory," ''History Today'', Vol. 50, March 2000</ref>
| |
| | | | |
| − | The first post-war government was led by [[Mihály Károlyi]], and was the first modern effort at liberal democratic government in Hungary. But it was cut short in a spasm of communist revolution, which would have serious implications for the manner in which Hungarian Jews were viewed by their fellow-countrymen.{{citation needed|date=January 2020}}
| + | *[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Hungarian_Jews Węgierscy obywatele pochodzenia żydowskiego] |
| | + | *[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Israeli_people_of_Hungarian-Jewish_descent Obywatele Izraela pochodzący z Węgier] |
| | + | *[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oberlander_Jews Oberlander Jews] |
| | + | *[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siebengemeinden Siebengemeinden] |
| | + | *[https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Batte_Ungarin Batte Ungarin] |
| | + | *[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kiryat_Unsdorf Kiryat Unsdorf] |
| | + | *[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kiryat_Mattersdorf Kiryat Mattersdorf] |
| | | | |
| − | In March 1919, Communist and Social Democrat members of a coalition government ousted Karolyi; soon after (21 March), the Communists were to take power as their Social Democrat colleagues were willing neither to accept nor to refuse the Vix Note to cede a significant part of the Great Plains to Romania and the communists took control of Hungary's governing institutions. While popular at first among Budapest's progressive elite and proletariat, the so-called Hungarian Soviet Republic fared poorly in almost all of its aims, particularly its efforts to regain territories occupied by [[Slovakia]] (although achieving some transitional success here) and [[Romania]]. All the less palatable excesses of Communist uprisings were in evidence during these months, particularly the formation of squads of brutal young men practicing what they called "[[revolutionary terror]]" to intimidate and suppress dissident views. All but the one [[Sándor Garbai]], the revolution's leaders, including [[Béla Kun]], [[Tibor Szamuely]], and [[Jenő Landler]] – were of Jewish ancestry. As in other countries where Communism was viewed as an immediate threat, the presence of ethnic Jews in positions of revolutionary leadership helped foster the notion of a Jewish-Bolshevik conspiracy.<ref name="Mason, John W 2000"/>
| + | == Przypisy == |
| | + | {{izvori}} |
| | | | |
| − | Kun's regime was crushed after four and a half months when the Romanian army entered Budapest; it was quickly followed by the reactionary forces under the command of the former Austro-Hungarian admiral, [[Miklós Horthy]].{{citation needed|date=January 2020}} The sufferings endured during the brief revolution, and their exploitation by ultra-nationalist movements, helped generate stronger suspicions among non-Jewish Hungarians, and undergirded pre-existing anti-Semitic views.{{citation needed|date=January 2020}}
| + | == Referencje == |
| | + | :Uwaga: Ten artykuł zawiera tekst z publikacji będącej obecnie w domenie publicznej: Büchler, Alexander (1904). "Hungary". W: Singer, Isidore (wyd.). ''The Jewish Encyclopedia''. Volume 6. New York and London: Funk and Wagnalls Co., str. 494–503. |
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| − | Beginning in July 1919, officers of Horthy's National Army engaged in a brutal string of counter-reprisals against Hungarian communists and their allies, real or imagined.<ref>Bodo, Bela, Paramilitary Violence in Hungary After the First World War, East European Quarterly, June 22, 2004</ref> This series of pogroms directed at Jews, progressives, peasants and others is known as the [[White Terror (Hungary)|White Terror]]. Horthy's personal role in these reprisals is still subject of debate (in his memoirs he refused to disavow the violence, saying that "only an iron broom" could have swept the country clean).<ref>''Admiral Miklos Horthy: Memoirs'', U. S. Edition: Robert Speller & Sons, Publishers, New York, NY, 1957</ref> Tallying the numbers of victims of the different terror campaigns in this period is still a matter of some political dispute<ref>see Andrew Simon's annotations to Horthy's ''Memoirs'', English Edition, 1957</ref> but the White Terror is generally considered to have claimed more lives than the repressions of the Kun regime by an order of magnitude, thousands vs hundreds.<ref name="Mason, John W 2000"/><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.graphicwitness.org/contemp/biro01.htm |title=Mihály Biró |publisher=Graphic Witness |date= |access-date=2013-02-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120903110336/http://www.graphicwitness.org/contemp/biro01.htm |archive-date=2012-09-03 |url-status=live |df= }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.graphicwitness.org/contemp/biro02.htm |title=Mihály Biró |publisher=Graphic Witness |date= |access-date=2013-02-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120810033611/http://www.graphicwitness.org/contemp/biro02.htm |archive-date=2012-08-10 |url-status=live |df= }}</ref>
| + | == Dalsze czytanie == |
| − | | |
| − | == Interwar years ==
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| − | In the first few decades of the 20th century the Jews of Hungary numbered roughly 5 percent of the population. This minority had managed to achieve great commercial success, and Jews were disproportionately represented in the professions, relative to their numbers. In 1921 [[Budapest]], 88% of the members of the stock exchange and 91% of the currency brokers were Jews, many of them ennobled.{{citation needed|date=January 2020}} In interwar Hungary, more than half and perhaps as much as 90 percent of Hungarian industry was owned or operated by a few closely related Jewish banking families.{{citation needed|date=January 2020}}
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| − | | |
| − | [[File:Jewish Hungarian country girl in 1928.jpg|thumb|upright|left|A Jewish Hungarian country girl around 1930.]]
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| − | [[File:In front of the Grünbaum grocery shop.jpg|thumb|Local customers in front of a Jewish grocery in [[Berzence]], around 1930.]]
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| − | | |
| − | Jews represented one-fourth of all university students and 43% percent at [[Budapest University of Technology and Economics|Budapest Technological University]]. In 1920, 60 percent of Hungarian doctors, 51 percent of lawyers, 39 percent of all privately employed engineers and chemists, 34 percent of editors and journalists, and 29 percent of musicians identified themselves as Jews by religion.<ref>All these figures are from [[Yuri Slezkine|Slezkine, Yuri]]. ''The Jewish Century.'' Princeton, 2004. {{ISBN|0-691-11995-3}}</ref>
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| − | | |
| − | Resentment of this Jewish trend of success was widespread: Admiral Horthy himself declared that he was "an anti-Semite", and remarked in a letter to one of his prime ministers, "I have considered it intolerable that here in Hungary everything, every factory, bank, large fortune, business, theater, press, commerce, etc. should be in Jewish hands, and that the Jew should be the image reflected of Hungary, especially abroad."{{sfn|Patai|1996|p=546}}
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| − | | |
| − | Unfortunately for Jews they had also become, by a quirk of history, the most visible minority remaining in Hungary (besides ethnic Germans and Gypsies); the other large "non-Hungarian" populations (including Slovaks, Slovenes, Croats, and Romanians, among others) had been abruptly excised from the Hungarian population by the territorial losses at Trianon. That and the highly visible role of Jews in the economy, the media and the professions, as well as in the leadership of the 1919 Communist dictatorship left Hungary's Jews as an ethnically separate group which could serve as a scapegoat for the nation's ills.<ref name="Mason, John W 2000"/> The scapegoating began quickly. In 1920, Horthy's government passed a "Numerus Clausus" law that placed limits on the number of minority students in proportion of their size of the population, thus restricting the Jewish enrollment at universities to five percent or less.{{citation needed|date=January 2020}}
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| − | | |
| − | Anti-Jewish policies grew more repressive in the interwar period as Hungary's leaders, who remained committed to regaining territories lost in WW1, chose to align themselves (albeit warily) with the fascist governments of Germany and Italy – the international actors most likely to stand behind Hungary's claims.<ref name="Mason, John W 2000"/> The inter-war years also saw the emergence of flourishing fascist groups, such as the [[Hungarian National Socialist Party]] and the [[Arrow Cross Party]].
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| − | | |
| − | == Anti-Jewish measures ==
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| − | === Anti-Jewish Laws (1938–1941) ===
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| − | Starting in 1938, Hungary under [[Miklós Horthy]] passed a series of anti-Jewish measures in emulation of Germany's [[Nuremberg Laws]].
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| − | | |
| − | # The "'''First Jewish Law'''" (May 29, 1938) restricted the number of Jews in each commercial enterprise, in the press, among physicians, engineers and lawyers to twenty percent.
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| − | # The "'''Second Jewish Law'''" (May 5, 1939), for the first time, defined Jews racially: individuals with two, three or four Jewish-born grandparents were declared Jewish.
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| − | # The "'''Third Jewish Law'''" (August 8, 1941) prohibited intermarriage and penalized sexual intercourse between Jews and non-Jews.
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| − | | |
| − | Their employment in government at any level was forbidden, they could not be editors at newspapers, their numbers were restricted to six per cent among theater and movie actors, physicians, lawyers and engineers. Private companies were forbidden to employ more than 12% Jews. 250,000 Hungarian Jews lost their income. Most of them lost their right to vote as well: before the second Jewish law, about 31% of the Jewish population of Borsod county (Miskolc excluded), 2496 people had this right. At the next elections, less than a month after this new anti-Jewish legislation, only 38 privileged Jews could vote.<ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Braham |editor1-first=Randolph L. |year=2007 |title=A Magyarországi Holokauszt Földrajzi Enciklopediája |trans-title=The Geographic Encyclopedia of the Holocaust in Hungary |location=Budapest |publisher=Park Publishing |volume=1 |isbn=9789635307388 }}</ref>
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| − | | |
| − | In the elections of May 28–29, Nazi and Arrow Cross (Nyilas) parties received one quarter of the votes and 52 out of 262 seats. Their support was even larger, usually between 1/3 and 1/2 of the votes, where they were on the ballot at all, since
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| − | they were not listed in large parts of the country<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.vokscentrum.hu/valaszt/index.php?jny=hun&mszkod=111000&evvalaszt=1939 |title=VoksCentrum – a választások univerzuma |publisher=Vokscentrum.hu |date= |access-date=2013-02-13 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120727205723/http://www.vokscentrum.hu/valaszt/index.php?jny=hun&mszkod=111000&evvalaszt=1939 |archive-date=2012-07-27 |df= }}</ref> For instance, the support for Nazi parties was above 43% in the election districts of Zala, Győr-Moson, Budapest surroundings, Central and Northern Pest-Pilis, and above 36% in Veszprém, Vas, Szabolcs-Ung, Sopron, Nógrád-Hont, Jász-Nagykun, Southern Pest town and Buda town. The Nazi parties were not on the ballot mainly in the Eastern third of the country and in Somogy, Baranya, Tolna, Fejér. Their smallest support was in Békés county (15%), Pécs town (19%), Szeged town (22%) and in Northern Pest town (27%)<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.vokscentrum.hu/valaszt/terkep.php?mszkod=111201&evvalaszt=1939&jny=hun |title=VoksCentrum – a választások univerzuma |publisher=Vokscentrum.hu |date= |access-date=2013-02-13 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120213115755/http://www.vokscentrum.hu/valaszt/terkep.php?mszkod=111201&evvalaszt=1939&jny=hun |archive-date=2012-02-13 |df= }}</ref>
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| − | | |
| − | === January 1941 census ===
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| − | According to ''Magyarország történelmi kronológiája'',<ref>Volume 3, Akadémiai Kiadó, Budapest 1982, p. 979</ref> the census of January 31, 1941 found that 6.2% of the population of 13,643,621, i.e. 846,000 people, were considered Jewish according to the racial laws of that time. In addition, in April 1941, Hungary annexed the Bácska ([[Bačka]]), the Muraköz ([[Međimurje County]]) and Muravidék ([[Prekmurje]]) regions from the [[Yugoslavia#World War II|occupied Yugoslavia]], with 1,025,508 people including 15,000 Jews (data are from October 1941). This means that inside the May 1941 borders of Hungary, there were 861,000 people (or 5.87%) who were at least half Jewish, and therefore were considered Jewish. From this number, 725,000 (or 4.94%) were Jewish in accordance with Jewish religious law (4.30% in pre-1938 Hungary, 7.15% in the territories [[Vienna Award|annexed from Czechoslovakia and Romania]] in 1938–1940 and 1.38% in the territories [[Axis occupation of Vojvodina|annexed from Yugoslavia]] in 1941).{{citation needed|date=January 2020}}
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| − | | |
| − | {| class="wikitable"
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | ! year of annexation; from which country
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| − | ! Region
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| − | ! Jewish by religion in 1941
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| − | ! Jewish by law but not by confessed religion
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| − | ! Jewish
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| − | |-
| |
| − | | pre-1938; Hungary || Budapest || 185,000 || 36,000–72,000 || 221,000-257,000
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| − | |-
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| − | | pre-1938; Hungary || countryside || 216,000 || 16,000–38,000 || 232,000–254,000
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| − | |-
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| − | | 1938; Czechoslovakia || southern Slovakia || 39,000 || 1,000–10,000 || 40,000–49,000
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| − | |-
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| − | | 1938; Czechoslovakia || lower Carpatho-Ruthenia (lower Ung and Bereg counties) || 39,000 || – || 39,000
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| − | |-
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| − | | 1939; Czechoslovakia || upper Carpatho-Ruthenia (ex-Czech part only) || 81,000 || – || 81,000
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| − | |-
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| − | | 1940; Romania || Northern Transylvania || 151,000 || 3,000–15,000 || 154,000–166,000
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| − | |-
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| − | | 1941; Yugoslavia || Bácska and other territories || 14,000 || 1,000 || 15,000
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| − | |-
| |
| − | | Total || || 725,000 || 57,000–136,000 || 782,000–861,000
| |
| − | |}
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| − | | |
| − | The following is from another source, a statistical summary written in the beginning of 1944 and referring to the 1941 census data:<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ksh.hu/statszemle_archive/viewer.html?ev=1944&szam=01-03&old=1&lap=20 |title=Magyar Statisztikai Szemle Jan-March 1944 |publisher=Ksh.hu |date= |access-date=2013-02-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121114202930/http://www.ksh.hu/statszemle_archive/viewer.html?ev=1944&szam=01-03&old=1&lap=20 |archive-date=2012-11-14 |url-status=live |df= }}</ref>
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| − | | |
| − | {| class="wikitable"
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| − | |-
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| − | ! Region by year of annexation
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| − | ! Yiddish+Hebrew by mother tongue in 1941
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| − | ! Jewish by ethnicity in 1941
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| − | ! Jewish by religion in 1941
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| − | ! Jewish by religion in 1930
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| − | ! Jewish by religion in 1910
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| − | |-
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| − | | pre-1938 || 1,357+222 || 9,764 (0.10%) || 400,980 (4.30%) || 444,567 (5.12%) || 471,378 (6.19%)
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| − | |-
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| − | | 1938 || 10,735+544 || 14,286 (1.35%) || 77,700 (7.32%) || 78,190 (7.56%) || 66,845 (7.69%)
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| − | |-
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| − | | 1939 || 68,643+1,987 || 64,191 (9.25%) || 80,960 (11.67%) || 71,782 (12.11%) || 63,324 (12.75%)
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| − | |-
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| − | | 1940 || 45,492+2,960 || 47,357 (1.84%) || 151,125 (5.86%) || 148,288 (6.20%) || 134,225 (6.14%)
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| − | |-
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| − | | 1941 || 338+47 || 3,857 (0.37%) || 14,242 (1.38%) || ? || 17,642 (1.87%)
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| − | |-
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| − | | Total || 126,565+5,760|| 139,455 (0.95%) || 725,007 (4.94%) || || 753,415 (6.22%)<ref>Statisztikai szemle 1941 11, p. 773</ref>
| |
| − | |}
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| − | | |
| − | The question about Jewish grandparents was added late to the questionnaires at the census of 1941, when some of the sheets had already been printed. In addition, a lot of Christians of Jewish ancestry did not answer this question truthfully. So while about 62,000 Christians admitted some Jewish ancestry (including 38,000 in Budapest), their actual number was estimated at least 100,000:<ref>Statisztikai szemle 1944 4-5, p. 96</ref>
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| − | | |
| − | {| class="wikitable"
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| − | |-
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| − | ! Religion
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| − | ! 4 Jewish grandparents
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| − | ! 3
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| − | ! 2
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| − | ! 1
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| − | |-
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| − | | Jewish in Budapest || 175,651 || 448 || 7,655 || 699
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| − | |-
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| − | | Christian in Budapest || 26,120 || 616 || 9,238 || 1,957
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| − | |-
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| − | | Jewish in the entire country || 708,419 || 1,639 || 15,011 || 1,938
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| − | |-
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| − | | Christian in the entire country || 38,574 || 888 || 18,015 || 4,071
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| − | |}
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| − | | |
| − | === First massacres ===
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| − | It is not clear whether the 10,000–20,000 Jewish refugees (from Poland and elsewhere) were counted in the January 1941 census. They and anyone who could not prove legal residency since 1850, about 20,000 people, were deported to southern Poland and either abandoned there or were handed over to the Germans between July 15 and August 12, 1941. In practice, the Hungarians deported many people whose families had lived in the area for generations. In some cases, applications for residency permits were allowed to pile up without action by Hungarian officials until after the deportations had been carried out. The vast majority of those deported were massacred in Kameniec-Podolsk ([[Kamianets-Podilskyi massacre]]) at the end of August.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://degob.org/index.php?showarticle=2019 |title=degob.org |publisher=degob.org |date=1941-08-28 |access-date=2013-02-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070309073956/http://degob.org/index.php?showarticle=2019 |archive-date=2007-03-09 |url-status=live |df= }}</ref>{{efn|"A few thousand of the deportees were simply abandoned by their captors in the areas surrounding Kaminets-Podolsk. Most subsequently perished with other Jewish residents of the area as a result of transports or aktions in the many ghettos that were established but a handful survived, either by returning to the area of their homes, or otherwise. The number of people deported over the Carpathians was 19,426 according to a document found in 2012 ."<ref>{{cite web |author=Betekintő |url=http://www.betekinto.hu/2012_2_gellert_gellert |title=A few thousand of the deportees ... |publisher=Betekinto.hu |date= |access-date=2013-02-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140517122642/http://www.betekinto.hu/2012_2_gellert_gellert |archive-date=2014-05-17 |url-status=dead |df= }}</ref>}}
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| − | | |
| − | In the massacres of Újvidék ([[Novi Sad]]) and villages nearby, 2,550–2,850 Serbs, 700–1,250 Jews and 60–130 others were murdered by the Hungarian Army and "Csendőrség" (Gendarmerie) in January 1942. Those responsible, [[Ferenc Feketehalmy-Czeydner]], [[Márton Zöldy]], [[József Grassy]], [[László Deák]] and others were later tried in Budapest during December 1943 and were sentenced, but some of them escaped to Germany.{{citation needed|date=January 2020}}
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| − | | |
| − | During the war, Jews were called up to serve in unarmed "[[Labour service (Hungary)|labour service]]" (munkaszolgálat) units which were used to repair bombed railroads, build airports or to clean up minefields at the front barehanded. Approximately 42,000 Jewish labour service troops were killed at the Soviet front in 1942–43, of which about 40% perished in Soviet POW camps. Many died as a result of harsh conditions on the Eastern Front and cruel treatment by their Hungarian sergeants and officers. Another 4,000 forced laborers died in the copper mine of [[Bor, Serbia]]. Nevertheless, [[Miklós Kállay]], Prime Minister from March 9, 1942 and Regent Horthy resisted German pressure and refused to allow the deportation of Hungarian Jews to the German [[extermination camps]] in occupied Poland. This "anomalous" situation lasted until March 19, 1944, when German troops occupied Hungary and forced Horthy to oust Kállay.{{citation needed|date=January 2020}}
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| − | | |
| − | ==The Holocaust{{anchor|The Holocaust in Hungary|Holocaust in Hungary|Holocaust}}==
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| − | {{main|The Holocaust in Hungary}}
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| − | | |
| − | === Germany invades Hungary ===
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| − | [[File:Adolf Eichmann, 1942.jpg|thumb|upright|Adolf Eichmann in 1942]]
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| − | On 18 March 1944, [[Adolf Hitler]] summoned Horthy to a conference in Austria, where he demanded greater acquiescence from the Hungarian state. Horthy resisted, but his efforts were fruitless – while he attended the conference, German tanks rolled into Budapest.{{citation needed|date=January 2019}} On March 23, the government of [[Döme Sztójay]] was installed. Among his other first moves, Sztójay legalized the [[Arrow Cross Party]], which quickly began organizing. During the four days' interregnum following the German occupation, the Ministry of the Interior was put in the hands of [[László Endre]] and [[László Baky]], right-wing politicians well known for their hostility to Jews. Their boss, [[Andor Jaross]], was another committed anti-Semite.{{citation needed|date=January 2019}}
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| − | | |
| − | A few days later, Ruthenia, Northern Transylvania, and the border region with Croatia and Serbia were placed under military command. On April 9, Prime Minister [[Döme Sztójay]] and the Germans obligated Hungary to place at the disposal of the Reich 300,000 Jewish laborers. Five days later, on April 14, Endre, Baky, and [[Adolf Eichmann]], the SS officer in charge of organising the deportation of Hungarian Jews to the German Reich, decided to deport all the Jews of Hungary.{{citation needed|date=January 2019}}
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| − | | |
| − | Although from 1943, the BBC Polish Service broadcast about the exterminations, the BBC Hungarian Service did not discuss the Jews. A 1942 memo for the BBC Hungarian Service, written by [[Carlile Macartney]], a British Foreign Office adviser on Hungary, said: "We shouldn't mention the Jews at all." Macartney believed that most Hungarians were antisemitic, and that mentioning the Jews would alienate much of the population.{{efn|"[T]he BBC broadcast every day, giving updates on the war, general news and opinion pieces on Hungarian politics. But among all these broadcasts, there were crucial things that were not being said, things that might have warned thousands of Hungarian Jews of the horrors to come in the event of a German occupation. A memo setting out policy for the BBC Hungarian Service in 1942 states: 'We shouldn't mention the Jews at all.'"<ref name="bbc-no-warning-to-hungary-jews">{{cite web|title=Could the BBC have done more to help Hungarian Jews?|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-20267659|publisher=BBC |first=Mike |last=Thomson|date=13 November 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180621165442/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-20267659|archive-date=2018-06-21|url-status=live|df=}}</ref>}} Most of the Jews did not believe that the Holocaust might happen in Hungary: "This might be happening in Galicia to Polish Jews, but this can't happen in our very cultivated Hungarian state."{{efn|"The Hungarian Jews in 1944 knew all about it. They had a lot of information because there were Jewish refugees coming to Hungary, in 1942 and 1943, giving reports about what was happening in Poland, and what was the reaction from the Jews? This is Hungary. This might be happening in Galicia to Polish Jews, but this can’t happen in our very cultivated Hungarian state. It is impossible that even early in 1944, the Jewish leadership there didn’t have some information about what was happening. There were people escaping from the extermination camps just 80 km from the Hungarian border and there were letters and reports and of course the BBC. I think part of the problem of the Holocaust was that potential victims couldn’t believe the information. The idea that something so atrocious would come from Germany and from European civilized environment was so unimaginable that they didn’t take it for real, even when they received overwhelming reports from the death camps."<ref name="Götz-Aly-yad-vashem">{{cite web|title="The Uneasy Closeness to Ourselves": Interview with Dr. Götz Aly, German Historian and Journalist|url=https://www.yadvashem.org/articles/interviews/aly.html|publisher=Yad Vashem, The International School for Holocaust Studies|author=Kathryn Berman and Asaf Tal|access-date=2019-01-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190116100411/https://www.yadvashem.org/articles/interviews/aly.html|archive-date=2019-01-16|url-status=live|df=}}</ref>}} According to [[Yehuda Bauer]], when the deportations to Auschwitz began in May 1944, the Zionist youth movements organized smuggling of Hungarian Jews into Romania. Around 4,000 Hungarian Jews were smuggled into Romania, including the smugglers and those who paid them on the border. The Romanians agreed to let those Jews in, despite heavy German pressure.{{efn|"Another major activity, which was financed chiefly by Palestinian funds but which also received some support from JDC, was the smuggling into Rumania of Hungarian Jews when the deportations to Auschwitz began in that country in May, 1944. It is not quite clear just how many Hungarian Jews managed to get across, but the number was in the neighborhood of 4,0(X). Most of them came by a route organized by the youth movements, though some paid individual smugglers on the border. In Istanbul, Alexander Cretianu, the Rumanian minister, agreed that these Jews should be let into his country. Filderman and Zissu obtained similar assurances in Bucharest, despite heavy German pressure."<ref name="Bauer1981p354">{{cite book|author=Yehuda Bauer|title=American Jewry and the Holocaust: The American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee, 1939–1945|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WOd3rLul-LcC|year=1981|publisher=Wayne State University Press|isbn=0-8143-1672-7|page=354|quote=}}</ref>}}
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| − | | |
| − | === Deportation to Auschwitz ===
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| − | [[File:Selection on the ramp at Auschwitz-Birkenau, 1944 (Auschwitz Album) 1b.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|Hungarian Jews on the ''Judenrampe'' (Jewish ramp) at [[Auschwitz II-Birkenau]] after disembarking from the [[Holocaust train|transport trains]]. To be sent to the right meant labor; to the left the [[gas chamber]]s. Photo from the [[Auschwitz Album]] (May/June 1944)]]
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| − | [[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-N0827-318, KZ Auschwitz, Ankunft ungarischer Juden.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|Hungarian Jews from [[Carpatho-Ruthenia]] arriving at Auschwitz]]
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| − | ''SS-[[Obersturmbannführer]]'' [[Adolf Eichmann]],<ref>transcripts of his entire trial online: http://www.nizkor.org/hweb/people/e/eichmann-adolf/transcripts/ {{Webarchive|url=https://www.webcitation.org/6AFqiYzU4?url=http://www.nizkor.org/hweb/people/e/eichmann-adolf/transcripts/ |date=2012-08-28 }}</ref> whose duties included supervising the extermination of Jews, set up his staff in the Majestic Hotel and proceeded rapidly in rounding up Jews from the Hungarian provinces outside Budapest and its suburbs. The [[Yellow badge|Yellow Star]] and Ghettoization laws, and deportation, were accomplished in less than 8 weeks, with the enthusiastic help of the Hungarian authorities, particularly the [[gendarmerie]] (''csendőrség''). The plan was to use 45 cattle cars per train, 4 trains a day, to deport 12,000 Jews to Auschwitz every day from the countryside, starting in mid-May; this was to be followed by the deportation of Jews of Budapest from about July 15.
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| − | Just before the deportations began, the [[Vrba-Wetzler Report]] reached the Allied officials. Details from the report were broadcast by the BBC on 15 June, and printed in ''[[The New York Times]]'' on 20 June.<ref name=Rees>[[Laurence Rees|Rees, Laurence]], ''Auschwitz: A New History'', Public Affairs, 2005. {{ISBN|1-58648-357-9}}</ref> World leaders, including [[Pope Pius XII]] (25 June), President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] on 26 June, and King [[Gustaf V of Sweden]] on 30 June,<ref name=HolokausztMo>[http://www.holokausztmagyarorszagon.hu/index.php?section=1&type=content&chapter=4_3_2 A holokauszt Magyarországon: A deportálások leállítása] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060709130224/http://www.holokausztmagyarorszagon.hu/index.php?section=1&type=content&chapter=4_3_2 |date=2006-07-09 }} (in Hungarian; retrieved 11 September 2006)</ref> subsequently pleaded with Horthy to use his influence to stop the deportations. Roosevelt specifically threatened military retaliation if the transports were not ceased. On 7 July, Horthy at last ordered the transports halted.<ref>Szita, Szabolcs, ''Trading in Lives?'' Central European University Press, Budapest, 2005, pp. 50–54</ref> According to historian Péter Sipos, the Hungarian government had already known about the Jewish genocide since 1943.<ref>Péter Sipos, [http://www.tankonyvtar.hu/hu/tartalom/historia/94-04/ch11.html Horthy Miklós és Magyarország német megszállása] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150420121956/http://www.tankonyvtar.hu/hu/tartalom/historia/94-04/ch11.html |date=2015-04-20 }}, História (volume 04), 1994</ref> Horthy's son and daughter-in-law both received copies of the Vrba-Wetzler report in early May, before mass deportations began.{{sfn|Bauer|2002|p=157}}{{efn|After the war, Horthy claimed that he did not know about the Final Solution until August, and that he thought the Jews were being sent to concentration camps for labor.<ref>{{cite book|last=Horthy |first=Admiral Nicholas|others=Nicholas Horthy, Miklós Horthy, Andrew L. Simon, Nicholas Roosevelt|title=Admiral Nicholas Horthy Memoirs |publisher=Simon Publications LLC|year=2000 |edition=illustrated |page=348 |isbn=0-9665734-3-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Qpzqnn95AHIC}}</ref> Some historians accept this claim.<ref name=Ilona>Ilona Edelsheim-Gyulai, Becsület és kötelesség, part I, p. 264. Európa press, [[Budapest]], 2001. {{ISBN|963-07-6544-6}}</ref>}} The [[Vrba-Wetzler Report]] is believed to have been passed to Hungarian [[Zionism|Zionist]] leader [[Rudolf Kastner]] no later than 28 April 1944; however, Kastner did not make it public.<ref>Gilbert 1981, pp. 201–205</ref>
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| − | The first transports to [[Auschwitz]] began in early May 1944, and continued, even as Soviet troops approached. The Hungarian government was solely in charge of the Jews' transportation up to the northern border. The Hungarian commander of the Kassa ([[Košice]]) railroad station meticulously recorded the trains heading to Auschwitz with their place of departure and the number of people inside them. The first train went through Kassa on May 14. On a typical day, there were three or four trains, with between 3,000 and 4,000 people on each train, for a total of approximately 12,000 Jews delivered to the extermination facilities each day. There were 109 trains during these 33 days through June 16. (There were days when there were as many as six trains.) Between June 25 and 29, there were 10 trains, then an additional 18 trains on July 5–9. The 138th recorded train (with the 400,426th victim) heading to Auschwitz via Kassa was on July 20.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.degob.hu/english/tables/kassa.html |title=Death trains in 1944: the Kassa list |publisher=Degob.hu |date=1944-05-15 |access-date=2013-02-13 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120330235913/http://www.degob.hu/english/tables/kassa.html |archive-date=2012-03-30 |df= }}</ref> Another 10 trains were sent to Auschwitz via other routes (24,000+ people) (the first two left Budapest and Topolya on April 29, and arrived at Auschwitz on May 2),<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId=10007259 |title=Auschwitz: Chronology |publisher=Ushmm.org |date= |access-date=2013-02-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130419022233/http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId=10007259 |archive-date=2013-04-19 |url-status=live |df= }}</ref> while 7 trains with 20,787 people went to [[Strasshof]] between June 25 and 28 (2 each from [[Debrecen]], [[Szeged]], and [[Baja, Hungary|Baja]]; 1 from [[Szolnok]]). The unique [[Kastner train]] left for [[Bergen-Belsen concentration camp|Bergen-Belsen]] with 1,685 people on June 30.
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| − | |quote="There is no doubt that this is probably the greatest and most horrible crime ever committed in the whole history of the world ..."
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| − | |source=[[Winston Churchill]], 11 July 1944<ref>[https://www.loc.gov/exhibits/churchill/interactive/_html/wc0213_3.html "Winston Churchill to Anthony Eden, July 11, 1944"]. Churchill Papers, Churchill Archives Centre, Cambridge.</ref>
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| − | By 9 July 1944, 437,402 Jews had been deported, according to Reich plenipotentiary in Hungary [[Edmund Veesenmayer]]'s official German reports.{{efn|Veesenmayer's telegram to Wilhelmstrasse (German Foreign Ministry) on July 11: "The concentration and transportation of the Jews from Zone V and the Budapest suburbs was concluded with 55,741 Jews on July 9, as planned. The total result from Zones I-V and the Budapest suburbs has been 437,402." p. 881, document #697 in "Wilhelmstrasse és Magyarország", Budapest, Kossuth, 1968.<ref>Gabor Kadar, Zoltan Vagi "Self-Financing Genocide: The Gold Train – The Becher Case – The Wealth of Jews, Hungary" (Central European University Press, 2004) {{ISBN|978-963-9241-53-4}}</ref>}} One hundred and forty-seven trains were sent to Auschwitz, where most of the deportees were exterminated on arrival.{{sfn|Bauer|2002|p=156}} Because the crematoria could not cope with the number of corpses, special pits were dug near them, where bodies were simply burned. It has been estimated that one third of the murdered victims at Auschwitz were Hungarian.<ref>Gábor Kádár – Zoltán Vági: Magyarok Auschwitzban. (Hungarians in Auschwitz) In Holocaust Füzetek 12. Budapest, 1999, Magyar Auschwitz Alapítvány-Holocaust Dokumentációs Központ, pp. 92–123</ref>
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| − | For most of this time period, 12,000 Jews were delivered to Auschwitz in a typical day, among them the future writer and [[Nobel Prize]]-winner [[Elie Wiesel]], at age 15. Photographs taken at Auschwitz were found after the war showing the arrival of Jews from Hungary at the camp.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www1.yadvashem.org/exhibitions/album_auschwitz/ |title=The Auschwitz Album |publisher=yadvashem.org |date= |access-date=2013-02-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130318005726/http://www.yadvashem.org/exhibitions/album_auschwitz/ |archive-date=2013-03-18 |url-status=live |df= }}</ref>
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| − | The devotion to the cause of the "final solution" of the Hungarian gendarmes surprised even Eichmann himself, who supervised the operation with only twenty officers and a staff of 100, which included drivers, cooks, etc.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.degob.hu/english/index.php?showarticle=2031 |title=(Deportáltakat Gondozó Országos Bizottság) |publisher=Degob.hu |date=1944-03-19 |access-date=2013-02-13 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120215204801/http://www.degob.hu/english/index.php?showarticle=2031 |archive-date=2012-02-15 |df= }}</ref>
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| − | === Efforts to rescue Jews ===
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| − | [[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 101I-680-8285A-08, Budapest, Festnahme von Juden.jpg|thumb|Captured Jewish women in Wesselényi Street, Budapest, 20–22 October 1944]]
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| − | [[File:Budapest Hungary Holocaust Shoe Memorial Danube.jpg|thumb|[[Shoes on the Danube Bank|Holocaust Shoe Memorial]] beside the [[Danube]] River in Budapest. The shoes represent Hungarian Jews who lost their lives in January 1945.]]
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| − | Very few members of the Catholic or Protestant clergy raised their voices against sending the Jews to their death. (Notable was Bishop [[Áron Márton]]'s sermon in Kolozsvár on May 18). The Catholic Primate of Hungary, Serédi decided not to issue a pastoral letter condemning the deportation of the Jews.
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| − | Rome was liberated on June 4, D-day landing in Normandy was on June 6. But on June 15, the [[Mayor of Budapest]] designated 2,000 (5%) "starred" houses where every Jew (20%+) had to move together.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.csillagoshazak.hu/ |title=Csillagos házak |access-date=2014-04-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140411003005/http://www.csillagoshazak.hu/ |archive-date=2014-04-11 |url-status=dead |df= }}</ref> The authorities thought that the Allies would not bomb Budapest because the "starred" houses were scattered around the town. At the end of June, the Pope in Rome, The [[Gustaf VI Adolf of Sweden|King of Sweden]], and, in strong terms, President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] urged the halt to the deportations. Admiral Horthy ordered the suspension of all deportations on July 6. Nonetheless, another 45,000 Jews were deported from the Trans-Danubian region and the outskirts of Budapest to Auschwitz after this day. "After the failed attempt on Hitler's life, the Germans backed off from pressing Horthy's regime to continue further, large-scale deportations, although some smaller groups continued to be deported by train. In late August, Horthy refused Eichmann's request to restart the deportations. Himmler ordered Eichmann to leave Budapest."{{efn|"In late July there was a lull in the deportations. After the failed attempt on Hitler's life, the Germans backed off from pressing Horthy's regime to continue further, large-scale deportations. Smaller groups continued to be deported by train. At least one German police message decoded by GC&CS revealed that one trainload of 1,296 Jews from the town of Sarvar in western Hungary Hungarian Jews being rounded up in Budapest (Courtesy: USHMM) had departed for Auschwitz on August 4.112 In late August, Horthy refused Eichmann's request to re-start the deportations. Himmler ordered Eichmann to leave Budapest."<ref>{{cite web|last=Robert J. Hanyok|title=Eavesdropping on Hell: Historical Guide to Western Communications Intelligence and the Holocaust, 1939–1945|url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Holocaust/nsarep.pdf|publisher=National Security Agency, United States Cryptologic History|year=2004|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304031133/https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Holocaust/nsarep.pdf|archive-date=2016-03-04|url-status=live|df=}}</ref>}}
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| − | The Sztójay government rescheduled the date of deportation of the Jews of Budapest to Auschwitz to August 27.<ref>German embassy telegram sent by Grell [Horst Theodor Paul Grell, Legationsrat and SS Hauptsturmfuehrer] on August 19, 1944. The plan envisaged 6 trains with 20,000 people on August 27, then 3 trains with 9,000 people a day thereafter</ref> But the Romanians switched sides on August 23, 1944, causing huge problems for the German military. [[Himmler]] ordered the cancellation of further deportations from Hungary on August 25, in return for nothing more than {{ill|Saly Mayer|de}}’s promise to see whether the Germans' demands would be met.{{efn|"Himmler did in fact issue a definite order against it which reached Budapest on the night between August 24 and August 25, as Veesenmayer reported to Ribbentrop on the latter day. This order stood after Himmler received Becher’s cable. It seems, therefore, that in return for nothing more than Mayer’s promise to see whether the Germans’ demands would be met, Himmler was ready to desist from the deportation of Budapest Jewry."<ref name="Bauer1981p415">{{cite book|author=Yehuda Bauer|title=American Jewry and the Holocaust: The American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee, 1939–1945|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WOd3rLul-LcC&pg=PA461|year=1981|publisher=Wayne State University Press|isbn=0-8143-1672-7|page=415}}</ref>}} Horthy finally dismissed Prime Minister Sztójay on August 29, the same day the [[Slovak National Uprising]] against the Nazis started.
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| − | In spite of the change of government, Hungarian troops occupied parts of Southern Transylvania, Romania, and massacred hundreds of Jews in Kissármás ([[Sărmașu]]; [[Sărmașu massacre]]), Marosludas ([[Luduș]]; [[Luduș massacre]]) and other places starting September 4.
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| − | [[File:Carl Lutz Righteous Among Nations Plaque Washington, DC.jpg|thumb|A Memorial plaque for [[Carl Lutz]], a Swiss diplomat who saved the lives of tens of thousands of Hungarian Jews during the Holocaust.]]
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| − | === Arrow Cross rule ===
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| − | After the Nyilaskeresztes (Arrow Cross) coup d'état on October 15, tens of thousands of Jews of Budapest were sent on foot to the Austrian border in death marches, most forced laborers under Hungarian Army command so far were deported (for instance to [[Bergen-Belsen concentration camp|Bergen-Belsen]]), and two ghettos were set up in Budapest. The small "international ghetto" consisted of several "starred" houses under the protection of neutral powers in the Újlipótváros district. Switzerland was allowed to issue 7,800 Schutzpasses, Sweden 4,500, and the Vatican, Portugal and Spain 3,300 combined.{{sfn|Patai|1996|p=585}} The big [[Budapest ghetto]] was set up and walled in the Erzsébetváros part of Budapest on November 29. Nyilas raids and mass executions occurred in both ghettos regularly. In addition, in the two months between November 1944 and February 1945, the Nyilas shot 10,000–15,000 Jews on the banks of the Danube. Soviet troops liberated the big [[Budapest ghetto]] on January 18, 1945. On the Buda side of the town, the encircled Nyilas continued their murders until the Soviets took Buda on February 13.
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| − | The names of some diplomats, [[Raoul Wallenberg]], [[Carl Lutz]], [[Ángel Sanz Briz]], [[Giorgio Perlasca]], [[Carlos Sampaio Garrido]], and [[Carlos de Liz-Texeira Branquinho]]<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.npl.org/pages/ProgramsExhibits/PressReleases/sl82000.html|title=Spared Lives: The Actions of Three Portuguese Diplomats During World War II|date=August 24, 2000|work=The Newark Public Library|access-date=2009-07-28|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070814114724/http://www.npl.org/Pages/ProgramsExhibits/PressReleases/sl82000.html|archive-date=August 14, 2007|df=}}</ref> deserve mentioning, as well as some members of the army and police who saved people ([[Pál Szalai]], [[Károly Szabó]], and other officers who took Jews out from camps with fake papers), an Interior Ministry official ([[Béla Horváth]]) and some church institutions and personalities. [[Rudolf Kastner]] deserves special attention because of his enduring negotiations with Adolf Eichmann and [[Kurt Becher]] to prevent deportations to Auschwitz, succeeding only minimally by sending Jews to still horrific labor battalions in Austria and ultimately saving 1,680 Jews in [[Kastner's train]].<ref name="ReferenceA">Anna Porter. Kasztner's Train. 2007</ref>
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| − | === Number of survivors ===
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| − | An estimated 119,000 Jewish people were liberated in Budapest (25,000 in the small "international" ghetto, 69,000 in the big ghetto, and 25,000 hiding with false papers) and 20,000 forced laborers in the countryside. Almost all the surviving deportees returned between May and December 1945, at least to check out the fate of their families. Their number was 116,000.<ref>Braham, Randolph L. - Tibori Szabó, Zoltán, A Magyarországi Holokauszt Földrajzi Enciklopediája [The Geographic Encyclopedia of the Holocaust in Hungary]. Budapest: Park Publishing, 3 vol. (2006). Vol. 1, p. 91</ref> It is estimated that from an original population of 861,000 people considered Jewish inside the borders of 1941–1944, about 255,000 survived. This gives a 29.6 percent survival rate. According to another calculation, Hungary's Jewish population at the time of the German invasion was 800,000, of which 365,000 survived.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://epa.oszk.hu/00000/00036/00015/pdf/09.pdf |title=A magyar zsidóság a vészkorszakban és a második világháború után |publisher=Regio – Kisebbség, politika, társadalom |date=1993 |author=Tamás Stark |access-date=2009-05-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070329174849/http://epa.oszk.hu/00000/00036/00015/pdf/09.pdf |archive-date=2007-03-29 |url-status=live |df= }}</ref>
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| − | | |
| − | == See also ==
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| − | {{Portal|Hungary|Judaism}}
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| − | *[[List of Hungarian Jews]]
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| − | *[[Arrow Cross Party]]
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| − | *[[Budapest Ghetto]]
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| − | *[[History of Hungary]]
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| − | *[[History of the Jews in Bekes (Hungary)]]
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| − | *[[History of the Jews in Carpathian Ruthenia]]
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| − | *[[Hungary during the Second World War]]
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| − | *[[:Category:Israeli people of Hungarian-Jewish descent]]
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| − | *[[Kiryat Mattersdorf]]
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| − | *[[Miskolc pogrom]]
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| − | *[[Neolog Judaism]]
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| − | *[[Oberlander Jews]]
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| − | *[[Shoes on the Danube Promenade]]
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| − | *[[Siebengemeinden]]
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| − | *[[Batei Ungarin]]
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| − | *[[Unsdorf]]
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| − | | |
| − | == Notes ==
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| − | {{notelist|26em}}
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| − | | |
| − | == References ==
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| − | :Note: This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Büchler, Alexander (1904). "Hungary". In Singer, Isidore (ed.). ''The Jewish Encyclopedia''. Volume 6. New York and London: Funk and Wagnalls Co., pp. 494–503.
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| − | {{reflist|26em}}
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| − | | |
| − | == Further reading ==
| |
| | *[[Randolph L. Braham|Braham, Randolph L.]] (2001) ''The Holocaust in Hungary: a selected and annotated bibliography, 1984–2000''. Boulder: Social Science Monographs; Distributed by Columbia University Press {{ISBN|0-88033-481-9}} | | *[[Randolph L. Braham|Braham, Randolph L.]] (2001) ''The Holocaust in Hungary: a selected and annotated bibliography, 1984–2000''. Boulder: Social Science Monographs; Distributed by Columbia University Press {{ISBN|0-88033-481-9}} |
| | *Braham, Randolph L. (2001) ''The Politics of Genocide: the Holocaust in Hungary. (Rev. and enl. ed.) 2 vols. Boulder: Social Science Monographs; Distributed by Columbia University Press {{ISBN|0-88033-247-6}} [Hungarian translation available.] (1st ed.: New York: Columbia University Press, 1981.) | | *Braham, Randolph L. (2001) ''The Politics of Genocide: the Holocaust in Hungary. (Rev. and enl. ed.) 2 vols. Boulder: Social Science Monographs; Distributed by Columbia University Press {{ISBN|0-88033-247-6}} [Hungarian translation available.] (1st ed.: New York: Columbia University Press, 1981.) |
| | * Herczl, Moshe Y. ''Christianity and the Holocaust of Hungarian Jewry'' (1993) [https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt9qg6vj?Search=yes&resultItemClick=true&searchText=%22%3A+Christianity+and+the+Holocaust+of+Hungarian+Jewry%22&searchUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%3D%2522%253A%2BChristianity%2Band%2Bthe%2BHolocaust%2Bof%2BHungarian%2BJewry%2522%26amp%3Bacc%3Don%26amp%3Bwc%3Don%26amp%3Bfc%3Doff%26amp%3Bgroup%3Dnone&ab_segments=0%2Fbasic_search%2Fcontrol&refreqid=search%3A4c10eb461bf299248303b912e3bb43db online] | | * Herczl, Moshe Y. ''Christianity and the Holocaust of Hungarian Jewry'' (1993) [https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt9qg6vj?Search=yes&resultItemClick=true&searchText=%22%3A+Christianity+and+the+Holocaust+of+Hungarian+Jewry%22&searchUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%3D%2522%253A%2BChristianity%2Band%2Bthe%2BHolocaust%2Bof%2BHungarian%2BJewry%2522%26amp%3Bacc%3Don%26amp%3Bwc%3Don%26amp%3Bfc%3Doff%26amp%3Bgroup%3Dnone&ab_segments=0%2Fbasic_search%2Fcontrol&refreqid=search%3A4c10eb461bf299248303b912e3bb43db online] |
| | *[https://web.archive.org/web/20121015075310/http://www.ushmm.org/research/center/publications/occasional/2001-01/paper.pdf Hungary and the Holocaust], US Holocaust Memorial Museum | | *[https://web.archive.org/web/20121015075310/http://www.ushmm.org/research/center/publications/occasional/2001-01/paper.pdf Hungary and the Holocaust], US Holocaust Memorial Museum |
| − | *Miron, Guy, "[https://www.academia.edu/2440525/Center_or_Frontier_Hungary_and_Its_Jews_Between_East_and_West Center or Frontier: Hungary and Its Jews, Between East and West]", ''Journal of Levantine Studies'', vol. 1, Summer 2011, pp. 67-91 | + | *Miron, Guy, "[https://www.academia.edu/2440525/Center_or_Frontier_Hungary_and_Its_Jews_Between_East_and_West Center or Frontier: Hungary and Its Jews, Between East and West]", ''Journal of Levantine Studies'', vol. 1, Summer 2011, str. 67-91 |
| | *Patai, Raphael, ''Apprentice in Budapest: Memories of a World That Is No More'' Lanham, Maryland, Lexington Books, 2000, {{ISBN|0-7391-0210-9}} | | *Patai, Raphael, ''Apprentice in Budapest: Memories of a World That Is No More'' Lanham, Maryland, Lexington Books, 2000, {{ISBN|0-7391-0210-9}} |
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| − | == External links == | + | == Linki zewnętrzne == |
| − | {{commons category|Judaism in Hungary}}
| + | |
| | *[https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Holocaust/hungarytoc.html Jewish Virtual Library articles on Hungary] | | *[https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Holocaust/hungarytoc.html Jewish Virtual Library articles on Hungary] |
| | *[https://www.webcitation.org/696nBSIza?url=http://www.holocaust-history.org/hungarian-photos/ Documents on the Holocaust in Hungary] | | *[https://www.webcitation.org/696nBSIza?url=http://www.holocaust-history.org/hungarian-photos/ Documents on the Holocaust in Hungary] |
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| | *[http://jewish.hu/ Jewish Heritage Walking Tours in Budapest] | | *[http://jewish.hu/ Jewish Heritage Walking Tours in Budapest] |
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| − | {{Hungarian religions}}
| + | [[Kategoria:Historia]] |
| − | {{History of the Jews in Europe}}
| + | [[Kategoria:Historia Węgier]] |
| − | {{Hungary articles}}
| + | [[Kategoria:Żydzi na Węgrzech]] |
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| − | {{DEFAULTSORT:History Of The Jews In Hungary}}
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| − | [[Category:Jewish Hungarian history| ]] | |