Historia Żydów na Węgrzech

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Historia Żydów na Węgrzech sięga przynajmniej Królestwa Węgier, a niektóre wzmianki poprzedzają nawet węgierski podbój Kotliny Karpackiej w 895 roku n.e. o ponad 600 lat. Źródła pisane dowodzą, że społeczności żydowskie żyły w średniowiecznym Królestwie Węgier, a nawet przypuszcza się, że kilka sekcji heterogenicznych plemion węgierskich praktykowało judaizm. Urzędnicy żydowscy służyli królowi podczas panowania Andrzeja II na początku XIII wieku. Od drugiej połowy XIII wieku ogólna tolerancja religijna zmniejszyła się, a polityka Węgier upodobniła się do traktowania ludności żydowskiej w Europie Zachodniej. The history of the Jews in Hungary dates back to at least the Kingdom of Hungary, with some records even predating the Hungarian conquest of the Carpathian Basin in 895 CE by over 600 years. Written sources prove that Jewish communities lived in the medieval Kingdom of Hungary and it is even assumed that several sections of the heterogeneous Hungarian tribes practiced Judaism. Jewish officials served the king during the early 13th century reign of Andrew II. From the second part of the 13th century, the general religious tolerance decreased and Hungary's policies became similar to the treatment of the Jewish population in Western Europe. Węgierscy Żydzi byli dość dobrze zintegrowani ze społeczeństwem węgierskim do czasu pierwszej wojny światowej. Na początku XX wieku społeczność rozrosła się i stanowiła 5% całej populacji Węgier i 23% populacji stolicy, Budapesztu. Żydzi stali się wybitni w nauce, sztuce i biznesie. Do 1941 r. Ponad 17% Żydów w Budapeszcie prowadzili rozmowy rzymskokatolickie. [B] The Jews of Hungary were fairly well integrated into Hungarian society by the time of the First World War. By the early 20th century, the community had grown to constitute 5% of Hungary's total population and 23% of the population of the capital, Budapest. Jews became prominent in science, the arts and business. By 1941, over 17% of Budapest's Jews were Roman Catholic conversos.Szablon:Efn Polityka antyżydowska stała się bardziej represyjna w okresie międzywojennym, gdy przywódcy Węgier, którzy nadal byli zaangażowani w odzyskanie terytoriów utraconych na mocy porozumienia pokojowego (traktat z Trianon) z 1920 r., Zdecydowali się sprzymierzyć się z rządami nazistowskich Niemiec i faszystowskich Włoch - podmioty międzynarodowe prawdopodobnie staną teraz za roszczeniami Węgier [8]. Począwszy od 1938 roku, Węgry pod rządami Miklósa Horthy'ego wprowadziły szereg antyżydowskich środków naśladowania niemieckiego prawa norymberskiego. Po niemieckiej okupacji Węgier 19 marca 1944 r. Żydzi z prowincji zostali deportowani do obozu koncentracyjnego Auschwitz; od maja do lipca tego roku wysłano tam 437 000 Żydów z Węgier, w większości zagazowanych po przyjeździe [9]. Anti-Jewish policies grew more repressive in the interwar period as Hungary's leaders, who remained committed to regaining the territories lost at the peace agreement (Treaty of Trianon) of 1920, chose to align themselves with the governments of Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy – the international actors most likely to stand behind Hungary's claims. Starting in 1938, Hungary under Miklós Horthy passed a series of anti-Jewish measures in emulation of Germany's Nürnberg Laws. Following the German occupation of Hungary on 19 March 1944, Jews from the provinces were deported to the Auschwitz concentration camp; between May and July that year, 437,000 Jews were sent there from Hungary, most of them gassed on arrival. Dane spisu ludności Węgier z 2011 r. Wykazały, że 10 965 osób (0,11%) samo zidentyfikowało się jako religijni Żydzi, z czego 10 553 (96,2%) zadeklarowało się jako etniczni Węgrzy. [5] Szacunki dotyczące populacji Żydów na Węgrzech w 2010 roku wahają się od 54 000 do ponad 130 000 [10], głównie w Budapeszcie. [11] Na Węgrzech działa wiele synagog, w tym Synagoga przy ulicy Dohány, największa synagoga w Europie i druga co do wielkości synagoga na świecie po Świątyni Emanu-El w Nowym Jorku. [12] The 2011 Hungary census data had 10,965 people (0.11%) who self-identified as religious Jews, of whom 10,553 (96.2%) declared themselves as ethnic Hungarian. Estimates of Hungary's Jewish population in 2010 range from 54,000 to more than 130,000 mostly concentrated in Budapest. There are many active synagogues in Hungary, including the Dohány Street Synagogue, the largest synagogue in Europe and the second largest synagogue in the world after the Temple Emanu-El in New York City. Early history Przed 1095 Nie wiadomo dokładnie, kiedy Żydzi osiedlili się na Węgrzech. Zgodnie z tradycją król Decebalus (rządzący Dacją 87-106 ne) zezwolił Żydom, którzy pomagali mu w wojnie z Rzymem, osiedlić się na jego terytorium. [13] Dacia obejmowała część dzisiejszych Węgier, Rumunii i Mołdawii oraz mniejsze obszary Bułgarii, Ukrainy i Serbii. Więźniowie wojen żydowskich mogli zostać sprowadzeni z powrotem przez zwycięskie legiony rzymskie normalnie stacjonujące w Provincia Pannonia (zachodnie Węgry, wschodnia Austria). Marek Aureliusz nakazał przeniesienie części swoich zbuntowanych żołnierzy z Syrii do Panonii w 175 roku n.e. Oddziały te rekrutowano częściowo w Antiochii i Hemesie (obecnie Homs), które w tamtym czasie nadal miały znaczną populację żydowską. Oddziały Antiochii zostały przeniesione do Ulcisia Castra (dziś Szentendre), podczas gdy wojska hemizyjskie osiedliły się w Intercisa (Dunaújváros). [14] It is not definitely known when Jews first settled in Hungary. According to tradition, King Decebalus (ruled Dacia 87-106 CE) permitted the Jews who aided him in his war against Rome to settle in his territory. Dacia included part of modern-day Hungary as well as Romania and Moldova and smaller areas of Bulgaria, Ukraine, and Serbia. Prisoners of the Jewish Wars may have been brought back by the victorious Roman legions normally stationed in Provincia Pannonia (western Hungary, eastern Austria). Marcus Aurelius ordered the transfer of some of his rebellious troops from Syria to Pannonia in 175 CE. These troops had been recruited partly in Antioch and Hemesa (now Homs), which still had a sizable Jewish population at that time. The Antiochian troops were transferred to Ulcisia Castra (today Szentendre), while the Hemesian troops settled in Intercisa (Dunaújváros). Według Raphaela Patai kamienne inskrypcje odnoszące się do Żydów znaleziono w Brigetio (obecnie Szőny), Solva (Esztergom), Aquincum (Budapeszt), Intercisa (Dunaújváros), Triccinae (Sárvár), Dombovár, Siklós, Sopianae (Pécs i Savlyaria) (Szombathearia) [14] Inskrypcja łacińska, epitafium Septimy Marii, odkryta w Siklós (południowe Węgry w pobliżu granicy z Chorwacją), wyraźnie nawiązuje do jej żydowskości („Judea”). [13] Tablica Intercisa została wyryta w imieniu „Cosmiusa”. , szef celnej Spondilla, archisynagogus Iudeorum [głowa synagogi żydowskiej] „za panowania Aleksandra Sewera. W 2008 roku zespół archeologów odkrył amulet z III wieku w postaci złotego zwoju z napisem żydowskiej modlitwy Shema 'Yisrael wyryte na niej w Half Tower (obecnie Halbturn, Burgenland, w Austrii). [15] Węgierskie plemiona osiadły na tym terytorium 650 lat później. W języku węgierskim słowo oznaczające Żyd to Żyd, które zostało przejęte z jeden z języków słowiańskich. [13] [16] According to Raphael Patai, stone inscriptions referring to Jews were found in Brigetio (now Szőny), Solva (Esztergom), Aquincum (Budapest), Intercisa (Dunaújváros), Triccinae (Sárvár), Dombovár, Siklós, Sopianae (Pécs and Savaria (Szombathely). A Latin inscription, the epitaph of Septima Maria, discovered in Siklós (southern Hungary near Croatian border), clearly refers to her Jewishness ("Judaea"). The Intercisa tablet was inscribed on behalf of "Cosmius, chief of the Spondilla customhouse, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} [head of the synagogue of the Jews]" during the reign of Alexander Severus. In 2008, a team of archeologists discovered a 3rd-century AD amulet in the form of a gold scroll with the words of the Jewish prayer Shema' Yisrael inscribed on it in Féltorony (now Halbturn, Burgenland, in Austria). Hungarian tribes settled the territory 650 years later. In the Hungarian language, the word for Jew is zsidó, which was adopted from one of the Slavic languages. Pierwszym dokumentem historycznym dotyczącym węgierskich Żydów jest list napisany około 960 roku n.e. do króla Józefa Chazarów przez Hasdai ibn Shapruta, żydowskiego męża stanu Kordoby, w którym mówi, że słowiańscy ambasadorowie obiecali dostarczyć wiadomość królowi. Slawonii, która to samo oddałaby Żydom mieszkającym w „kraju węgierskim”, a ci z kolei przekazaliby to dalej. Mniej więcej w tym samym czasie Ibrahim ibn Jacob mówi, że Żydzi wyjeżdżali z Węgier do Pragi w celach biznesowych. Nie wiadomo nic o Żydach za czasów wielkich książąt, poza tym, że mieszkali na wsi i tam prowadzili handel. [13] The first historical document relating to the Jews of Hungary is the letter written about 960 CE to King Joseph of the Khazars by Hasdai ibn Shaprut, the Jewish statesman of Córdoba, in which he says that the Slavic ambassadors promised to deliver the message to the King of Slavonia, who would hand the same to Jews living in "the country of Hungarian", who, in turn, would transmit it farther. About the same time Ibrahim ibn Jacob says that Jews went from Hungary to Prague for business purposes. Nothing is known concerning the Jews during the period of the grand princes, except that they lived in the country and engaged in commerce there. W 1061 roku król Béla I zarządził, że targi powinny odbywać się w soboty zamiast tradycyjnych niedziel (język węgierski zachował poprzedni zwyczaj, „niedziela” = dosł. „Dzień targowy”). Za panowania św. Władysława (1077–1095) synod w Szabolcs zadekretował (20 maja 1092 r.), Że Żydom nie należy zezwalać na posiadanie chrześcijańskich żon ani na trzymanie chrześcijańskich niewolników. Dekret ten był promulgowany w chrześcijańskich krajach Europy od V wieku, a św. Władysław jedynie wprowadził go na Węgry [13]. In 1061, King Béla I ordered that markets should take place on Saturdays instead of the traditional Sundays (Hungarian language has preserved the previous custom, "Sunday" = Szablon:Wikt-lang, lit. "market day"). In the reign of St. Ladislaus (1077–1095), the Synod of Szabolcs decreed (May 20, 1092) that Jews should not be permitted to have Christian wives or to keep Christian slaves. This decree had been promulgated in the Christian countries of Europe since the 5th century, and St. Ladislaus merely introduced it into Hungary. Węgierscy Żydzi początkowo tworzyli małe osady i nie mieli wykształconych rabinów; ale ściśle przestrzegali wszystkich żydowskich praw i zwyczajów. Jedna z tradycji podąża za historią Żydów z Ratisbon (Regensburg) przybywających na Węgry w piątek z towarami z Rosji; koło ich wozu pękło w pobliżu Budy (Ofen) lub Esztergom (Gran) i zanim go naprawili i wjechali do miasta, Żydzi właśnie opuszczali synagogę. Nieumyślni łamiący szabat zostali ukarani wysokimi grzywnami. Rytuał węgierskich Żydów wiernie odzwierciedlał współczesne niemieckie zwyczaje. [13] The Jews of Hungary at first formed small settlements, and had no learned rabbis; but they were strictly observant of all the Jewish laws and customs. One tradition relates the story of Jews from Ratisbon (Regensburg) coming into Hungary with merchandise from Russia, on a Friday; the wheel of their wagon broke near Buda (Ofen) or Esztergom (Gran) and by the time they had repaired it and had entered the town, the Jews were just leaving the synagogue. The unintentional Sabbath-breakers were heavily fined. The ritual of the Hungarian Jews faithfully reflected contemporary German customs. 1095–1349 Coloman (1095–1116), następca św. Władysława, odnowił dekret Szabolcs z 1092 r., Dodając kolejne zakazy zatrudniania chrześcijańskich niewolników i czeladzi. Ograniczył też Żydów do miast posiadających biskupstwa - prawdopodobnie po to, by mieć ich pod stałym nadzorem Kościoła. Wkrótce po ogłoszeniu tego dekretu na Węgry przybyli krzyżowcy; ale Węgrzy nie sympatyzowali z nimi, a Koloman nawet im się sprzeciwiał. Rozwścieczeni krzyżowcy zaatakowali niektóre miasta i jeśli wierzyć Gedaliaszowi ibn Jaji, Żydów spotkał podobny los, jak ich współwyznawców we Francji, Niemczech i Czechach [13]. Coloman (1095–1116), the successor of St. Ladislaus, renewed the Szabolcs decree of 1092, adding further prohibitions against the employment of Christian slaves and domestics. He also restricted the Jews to cities with episcopal sees – probably to have them under the continuous supervision of the Church. Soon after the promulgation of this decree, Crusaders came to Hungary; but the Hungarians did not sympathize with them, and Coloman even opposed them. The infuriated Crusaders attacked some cities, and if Gedaliah ibn Yaḥya is to be believed, the Jews suffered a fate similar to that of their coreligionists in France, Germany, and Bohemia. Okrucieństwa zadane Żydom w Czechach skłoniły wielu z nich do szukania schronienia na Węgrzech. Prawdopodobnie to właśnie imigracja bogatych czeskich Żydów skłoniła Colomana wkrótce potem do uregulowania transakcji handlowych i bankowych między Żydami a chrześcijanami. Zadekretował, między innymi, że jeśli chrześcijanin pożyczył od Żyda lub Żyd od chrześcijanina, w transakcji muszą być obecni zarówno świadkowie chrześcijańscy, jak i żydowscy. [13] The cruelties inflicted upon the Jews of Bohemia induced many of them to seek refuge in Hungary. It was probably the immigration of the rich Bohemian Jews that induced Coloman soon afterward to regulate commercial and banking transactions between Jews and Christians. He decreed, among other regulations, that if a Christian borrowed from a Jew, or a Jew from a Christian, both Christian and Jewish witnesses must be present at the transaction. Za panowania króla Andrzeja II (1205–1235) żyli tu żydowscy szambelani, mennicy, solnicy i urzędnicy podatkowi. Jednakże szlachta tego kraju nakłoniła króla w swojej Złotej Bulli (1222) do pozbawienia Żydów tych wysokich urzędów. Kiedy Andrzej potrzebował pieniędzy w 1226 r., Królewskie dochody uprawiał Żydom, co dało podstawy do wielu skarg. Papież (papież Honoriusz III) następnie ekskomunikował go, aż w 1233 roku obiecał ambasadorom papieskim pod przysięgą, że będą egzekwować dekrety Złotej Bulli skierowane przeciwko Żydom i Saracenom (do tego czasu papiestwo się zmieniło, a papież był teraz papieżem Grzegorzem IX; mieliby odróżniać oba narody od chrześcijan za pomocą odznak i zabroniliby Żydom i Saracenom kupowania lub zatrzymywania chrześcijańskich niewolników [13]. During the reign of King Andrew II (1205–1235) there were Jewish Chamberlains and mint-, salt-, and tax-officials. The nobles of the country, however, induced the king, in his Golden Bull (1222), to deprive the Jews of these high offices. When Andrew needed money in 1226, he farmed the royal revenues to Jews, which gave ground for much complaint. The pope (Pope Honorius III) thereupon excommunicated him, until, in 1233, he promised the papal ambassadors on oath that he would enforce the decrees of the Golden Bull directed against the Jews and the Saracens (by this time, the papacy had changed, and the Pope was now Pope Gregory IX; he would cause both peoples to be distinguished from Christians by means of badges; and would forbid both Jews and Saracens to buy or to keep Christian slaves. Rok 1240 był zamknięciem piątego tysiąclecia ery żydowskiej. W tym czasie Żydzi oczekiwali nadejścia swojego Mesjasza. Inwazja mongolska w 1241 r. Zapoczątkowała oczekiwanie, ponieważ wyobraźnia żydowska spodziewała się, że szczęśliwy okres mesjański zapoczątkuje wojna Goga i Magoga. Béla IV (1235–1270) mianował Żyda imieniem Henul na urząd nadwornego szambelana (Teka pełnił ten urząd za Andrzeja II); a Wölfel i jego synowie Altmann i Nickel trzymali zamek w Komárom z posiadłościami w zastawie. Béla powierzył także Żydom mennicę; a hebrajskie monety z tego okresu nadal znajdują się na Węgrzech. W 1251 r. Béla nadał swoim poddanym żydowskim przywilej, który był zasadniczo taki sam, jak przywilej nadany austriackim Żydom przez księcia Fryderyka II Kłótliwego w 1244 r., Który jednak Béla zmodyfikował, aby dostosować go do warunków węgierskich. Przywilej ten obowiązywał aż do bitwy pod Mohaczem (1526). [13] The year 1240 was the closing one of the fifth millennium of the Jewish era. At that time the Jews were expecting the advent of their Messiah. The Mongol invasion in 1241 seemed to conform to expectation, as Jewish imagination expected the happy Messianic period to be ushered in by the war of Gog and Magog. Béla IV (1235–1270) appointed a Jewish man named Henul to the office of court chamberlain (Teka had filled this office under Andrew II); and Wölfel and his sons Altmann and Nickel held the castle at Komárom with its domains in pawn. Béla also entrusted the Jews with the mint; and Hebrew coins of this period are still found in Hungary. In 1251 a privilegium was granted by Béla to his Jewish subjects which was essentially the same as that granted by Duke Frederick II the Quarrelsome to the Austrian Jews in 1244, but which Béla modified to suit the conditions of Hungary. This privilegium remained in force down to the Battle of Mohács (1526). Na synodzie w Budzie (1279), za panowania króla Węgier Władysława IV (1272–1290), w obecności ambasadora papieskiego postanowiono, że każdy Żyd występujący publicznie powinien nosić po lewej stronie jego górna część garderoby to kawałek czerwonego materiału; że jakiemukolwiek chrześcijaninowi prowadzącemu interesy z Żydem, który nie jest tak oznaczony, lub mieszkającym w domu lub na ziemi razem z jakimkolwiek Żydem, należy odmówić przyjęcia na nabożeństwa kościelne; i że chrześcijanin powierzający jakikolwiek urząd Żydowi powinien być ekskomunikowany. Andrzej III (1291–1301), ostatni król z dynastii Árpádów, w przywileju udzielonym gminie Posonium (Bratysława) zadeklarował, że Żydzi w tym mieście powinni cieszyć się wszystkimi swobodami obywateli [17]. At the Synod of Buda (1279), held in the reign of King Ladislaus IV of Hungary (1272–1290), it was decreed, in the presence of the papal ambassador, that every Jew appearing in public should wear on the left side of his upper garment a piece of red cloth; that any Christian transacting business with a Jew not so marked, or living in a house or on land together with any Jew, should be refused admittance to the Church services; and that a Christian entrusting any office to a Jew should be excommunicated. Andrew III (1291–1301), the last king of the Árpád dynasty, declared, in the privilegium granted by him to the community of Posonium (Bratislava), that the Jews in that city should enjoy all the liberties of citizens.{{#invoke:Footnotes|sfn|template=sfn}} Wypędzenie, odwołanie i prześladowanie (1349–1526) Plik:Synagogue Sopron Hungary.jpg The Orthodox Synagogue of Sopron, Hungary, dates from the 1890s. Plik:Pottery artifacts Synagogue Sopron Hungary.jpg Medieval pottery artifacts inside the Sopron Synagogue Museum. Pod rządami obcych królów, którzy zasiedli na tronie Węgier po wygaśnięciu rodu Arpadów, węgierscy Żydzi byli prześladowani. W czasie czarnej śmierci (1349) zostali wypędzeni z kraju. Chociaż Żydzi zostali natychmiast ponownie przyjęci, byli ponownie prześladowani i po raz kolejny zostali wypędzeni w 1360 r. Przez króla Ludwika Wielkiego z Anjou (1342–1382). [18] Chociaż król Ludwik początkowo okazywał Żydom tolerancję we wczesnych latach swojego panowania, po podboju Bośni, podczas którego próbował zmusić miejscową ludność do przejścia z „heretyckiego” chrześcijaństwa Bogomila na katolicyzm, król Ludwik próbował narzucić konwersja również na węgierskich Żydów. Jednak nie udało mu się nawrócić ich na katolicyzm i wyrzucił ich [19]. Otrzymali je Aleksander Dobry Mołdawii i Dano I z Wołoszczyzny, który nadał im specjalne przywileje handlowe [18]. Under the foreign kings who occupied the throne of Hungary on the extinction of the house of Arpad, the Hungarian Jews suffered many persecutions. During the time of the Black Death (1349), they were expelled from the country. Although the Jews were immediately readmitted, they were again persecuted, and were once again expelled in 1360 by King Louis the Great of Anjou (1342–1382). Although King Louis had initially shown tolerance to the Jews during the early years of his reign, following his conquest of Bosnia, during which he tried to force the local population to convert from the "heretic" Bogomil Christianity to Catholicism, King Louis attempted to impose conversion on Hungarian Jews as well. However, he failed in his attempt to convert them to Catholicism, and expelled them.{{#invoke:Footnotes|sfn|template=sfn}} They were received by Alexander the Good of Moldavia and Dano I of Wallachia, the latter who afforded them special commercial privileges. Kilka lat później, kiedy Węgry znalazły się w trudnej sytuacji finansowej, przypomniano Żydów. Stwierdzili, że podczas ich nieobecności król wprowadził zwyczaj Tödtbriefe, tj. Anulowania pociągnięciem pióra, na prośbę poddanego lub miasta, noty i akty hipoteczne Żydów. Ważnym urzędem utworzonym przez Ludwika był „sędzia wszystkich Żydów mieszkających na Węgrzech”, który został wybrany spośród dostojników kraju, palatynów i skarbników, i miał zastępcę, który mu pomagał. Jego obowiązkiem było pobieranie podatków od Żydów, ochrona ich przywilejów i wysłuchiwanie ich skarg, które ostatnio wymienione były częstsze od czasów panowania Zygmunta Luksemburga (1387–1437) [18]. Some years later, when Hungary was in financial distress, the Jews were recalled. They found that during their absence the king had introduced the custom of Tödtbriefe, i.e., cancelling by a stroke of his pen, on the request of a subject or a city, the notes and mortgage-deeds of the Jews. An important office created by Louis was that of "judge of all the Jews living in Hungary," who was chosen from among the dignitaries of the country, the palatines, and treasurers, and had a deputy to aid him. It was his duty to collect the taxes of the Jews, to protect their privileges, and to listen to their complaints, which last-named had become more frequent since the reign of Sigismund Luxembourg (1387–1437). Następcy Zygmunta: Albert (1437–1439), Władysław Posthumus (1453–1457) i Macieja Korwina (1458–1490) również potwierdzili przywilej Béli IV. Matthias utworzył urząd prefekta żydowskiego na Węgrzech. Okres po śmierci Macieja był smutny dla węgierskich Żydów. Ledwo został pochowany, gdy ludzie na nich napadli, skonfiskowali ich majątek, odmówili spłaty należnych im długów i prześladowali ich ogólnie. Pretendent Jan Korwin, nieślubny syn Macieja, wyrzucił ich z Taty, a król Władysław II (1490–1516), zawsze potrzebujący pieniędzy, nałożył na nich wysokie podatki. Za jego panowania po raz pierwszy spalono Żydów na stosie, wielu rozstrzelano w Trnavie w 1494 r. Pod zarzutem mordu rytualnego [18]. The successors of Sigismund: Albert (1437–1439), Ladislaus Posthumus (1453–1457), and Matthias Corvinus (1458–1490) all likewise confirmed the privilegium of Béla IV. Matthias created the office of Jewish prefect in Hungary. The period following the death of Matthias was a sad one for the Hungarian Jews. He was hardly buried, when the people fell upon them, confiscated their property, refused to pay debts owing to them, and persecuted them generally. The pretender John Corvinus, Matthias' illegitimate son, expelled them from Tata, and King Ladislaus II (1490–1516), always in need of money, laid heavy taxes upon them. During his reign, Jews were for the first time burned at the stake, many being executed at Nagyszombat (Trnava) in 1494, on suspicion of ritual murder. Węgierscy Żydzi w końcu zwrócili się do niemieckiego cesarza Maksymiliana o ochronę. Z okazji ślubu Ludwika II i arcyksiężnej Marii (1512) cesarz za zgodą Władysława objął pod swoją opiekę prefekta Jakuba Mendla z Budy wraz z rodziną i wszystkimi innymi węgierskimi Żydami, według nich wszystkie prawa przysługujące innym jego poddanym. Za następcy Władysława Ludwika II (1516–1526) prześladowania Żydów były na porządku dziennym. Gorzkie uczucie do nich zostało częściowo spotęgowane przez fakt, że ochrzczony zastępca skarbnika Emerich Lucky sprzeniewierzył fundusze publiczne [18]. The Hungarian Jews finally applied to the German Emperor Maximilian for protection. On the occasion of the marriage of Louis II and the archduchess Maria (1512), the emperor, with the consent of Ladislaus, took the prefect, Jacob Mendel of Buda, together with his family and all the other Hungarian Jews, under his protection, according to them all the rights enjoyed by his other subjects. Under Ladislaus' successor, Louis II (1516–1526), persecution of the Jews was a common occurrence. The bitter feeling against them was in part augmented by the fact that the baptized Emerich Szerencsés, the deputy treasurer, embezzled the public funds. [...] Revolution and emancipation (1848–1849) Jews and the Hungarian Revolution Jews entered the national guard as early as March 1848; although they were excluded from certain cities, they reentered as soon as the danger to the country seemed greater than the hatred of the citizens. At Pest the Jewish national guard formed a separate division. When the national guards of Pápa were mobilized against the Croatians, Leopold Löw, rabbi of Pápa, joined the Hungarian ranks, inspiring his companions by his words of encouragement. Jews were also to be found in the volunteer corps, and among the honvéd and landsturm; and they constituted one-third of the volunteer division of Pest that marched along the Drava against the Croatians, being blessed by Rabbi Schwab on June 22, 1848. Many Jews throughout the country joined the army to fight for their fatherland; among them, Adolf Hübsch, subsequently rabbi at New York City; Solomon Marcus Schiller-Szinessy, afterward lecturer at the University of Cambridge; and Ignatz Einhorn, who, under the name of "Eduard Horn," subsequently became state secretary of the Hungarian Ministry of Commerce. The rebellious Serbians slew the Jews at Zenta who sympathized with Hungary; among them, Rabbi Israel Ullmann and Jacob Münz, son of Moses Münz of Óbuda The conduct of the Jewish soldiers in the Hungarian army was highly commended by Generals Klapka and Görgey. Einhorn estimated the number of Jewish soldiers who took part in the Hungarian Revolution to be 20,000; but this is most likely exaggerated, as Béla Bernstein enumerates only 755 combatants by name in his work, Az 1848-49-iki Magyar Szabadságharcz és a Zsidók (Budapest, 1898).{{#invoke:Footnotes|sfn|template=sfn}} The Hungarian Jews served their country not only with the sword, but also with funds. Communities and individuals, Chevra Kadisha, and other Jewish societies, freely contributed silver and gold, armor and provisions, clothed and fed the soldiers, and furnished lint and other medical supplies to the Hungarian camps. Meanwhile, they did not forget to take steps to obtain their rights as citizens. When the Diet of 1847–1848 (in which, according to ancient law, only the nobles and those having the rights of nobles might take part) was dissolved (April 11), and the new Parliament — at which under the new laws the delegates elected by the commons also appeared — was convened at Pest (July 2, 1848), the Jews hopefully looked forward to the deliberations of the new body. Brief emancipation and aftermath, 1849 Many Jews thought to pave the way for emancipation by a radical reform of their religious life. They thought this might ease their way, as legislators in the Diets and articles printed in the press suggested that the Jews should not receive equal civic rights until they reformed their religious practices. This reform had been first demanded in the session of 1839–1840. From this session onward, the press and general assemblies pushed for religious reform. Several counties instructed their representatives not to vote for the emancipation of the Jews until they desisted from practising the externals of their religion. For the purpose of urging Jewish emancipation, all the Jews of Hungary sent delegates to a conference at Pest on July 5, 1848. It chose a commission of ten members to lobby with the Diet for emancipation. The commission delegates were instructed not to make any concessions related to practicing the Jewish faith. The commission soon after addressed a petition to the Parliament for emancipation, but it proved ineffective. The national assembly at Szeged granted emancipation of Jews on Saturday, the eve of the Ninth of Av (July 28, 1849). The bill, which was quickly debated and immediately became a law, fulfilled the hopes of the Reform party. The Jews obtained full citizenship. The Ministry of the Interior was ordered to call a convention of Jewish ministers and laymen for the purpose of drafting a confession of faith, and of inducing the Jews to organize their religious life in conformity with the demands of the time, for instance, business hours on Saturday, the Jewish Sabbath. The bill included the clause referring to marriages between Jews and Christians, which clause both Lajos Kossuth and the Reform party advocated. The Jews' civic liberty lasted for just two weeks. After the Hungarian army's surrender at Világos to Russian troops, which had come to aid the Austrians in suppressing the Hungarian struggle for liberty, the Jews were severely punished by new authorities for having taken part in the uprising. Field Marshal Julius Jacob von Haynau, the new governor of Hungary, imposed heavy war-taxes upon them, especially upon the communities of Pest and Óbuda, which had already been heavily taxed by Alfred I, Prince of Windisch-Grätz, commander-in-chief of the Austrian army, on his triumphant entry into the Hungarian capital at the beginning of 1849. Haynau punished the communities of Kecskemét, Nagykőrös, Cegléd, Albertirsa, Szeged, and Szabadka (now Subotica, Serbia) with equal severity. Numerous Jews were imprisoned and executed; others sought refuge in emigration.{{#invoke:Footnotes|sfn|template=sfn}} Several communities petitioned to be relieved of the war taxes. The ministry of war, however, increased the burden, requiring that the communities of Pest, Óbuda, Kecskemét, Czegléd, Nagykőrös, and Irsa should pay this tax not in kind, but in currency to the amount of 2,300,000 gulden. As the communities were unable to collect such monies, they petitioned the government to remit it. The Jewish communities of the entire country were ordered to share in raising the sum, on the grounds that most of the Jews of Hungary had supported the Revolution. Only the communities of Temesvár (now Timișoara, Romania) and Pressburg (now Bratislava, Slovakia) were exempted from this order, as they remained loyal to the existing Austrian government. The military commission added a clause to tax requirements, to the effect that individuals or communities might be exempted from the punishment, if they could prove by documents or witnesses, before a commission to be appointed, that they had not taken part in the Revolution, either by word or deed, morally or materially. The Jews refused this means of clearing themselves. They declared to be willing to redeem the tax by collecting a certain sum for a national school fund. Emperor Franz Joseph remitted the war-tax (September 20, 1850), but ordered that the Jews of Hungary without distinction should contribute toward a Jewish school fund of 1,000,000 gulden; they raised this sum within a few years.{{#invoke:Footnotes|sfn|template=sfn}} Struggles for a second emancipation (1859–1867) Plik:Falk Miksa.JPG Prominent newspaper editor and journalist Miksa (Maxmilian) Falk returned to Hungary from Vienna following the emancipation in 1867. He was a national-level politician from 1875 to 1905. While the House of Habsburg controlled Hungary, emancipation of Jews was postponed. When the Austrian troops were defeated in Italy in 1859, activists pressed for liberty. In that year the cabinet, with Emperor Franz Joseph in the chair, decreed that the status of the Jews should be regulated in agreement with the times, but with due regard for the conditions obtaining in the several localities and provinces. When the emperor convened the Diet on April 2, 1861, Jews pushed for emancipation but the early dissolution of that body prevented it from taking action in the matter. The decade of absolutism in Hungary (1849–1859) resulted in Jews establishing schools, most of which were in charge of trained teachers. Based on the Jewish school fund, the government organized model schools at Sátoraljaújhely, Temesvár (Timișoara), Pécs, and Pest. In Pest the Israelite State Teachers' Seminary was founded in 1859, the principals of which have included Abraham Lederer, Heinrich Deutsch, and József Bánóczi. When the Parliament dissolved in 1861, the emancipation of the Jews was deferred to the coronation of Franz Joseph. On December 22, 1867, the question came before the lower house, and on the favorable report of Kálmán Tisza and Zsigmond Bernáth, a bill in favor of emancipation was adopted; it was passed by the upper house on the following day. Although the Antisemitic Party was represented in the Parliament, it was not taken seriously by the political elite of the country. Its agitation against Jews was not successful (see Tiszaeszlár affair). On October 4, 1877, the Budapest University of Jewish Studies opened in Budapest. The university is still operating, celebrating its 130th anniversary on October 4, 2007. Since its opening, it has been the only Jewish institute in all of Central and Eastern Europe. In the 1890 Hungarian census, 64.0% of the Jewish population were counted as ethnic Hungarian by mother tongue, 33.1% as German 1.9% as Slovak, 0.8% as Romanian, and 0.2% as Ruthenian. Austria-Hungary (1867–1918) Plik:02 Pecs, Hungary - Great Synagogue.jpg Romantic style Great Synagogue in Pécs, built by Neolog community in 1869. Plik:Szeged synagogue SF.jpg Szeged Synagogue Family names Most Jews did not have family names before 1783. Some family names were recorded for Jewish families: 1050: Jászkonti 1263: Farkas 1350: Hosszú 16th century: Cseh, Jakab, Gazdag, Fekete, Nagy, Kis 1780: Bárány, Csonka, Horpács, Jónap, Kohányi, Kossuth, Kosztolányi, Lengyel, Lőrincz, Lukács, Szarvas, Szabó, Varga. Emperor Joseph II believed that Germanization could facilitate the centralization of his empire. Beginning in 1783, he ordered Jews to either choose or be given German family names by local committees. The actions were dependent on local conditions. With the rise of Hungarian nationalism, the first wave of Magyarization of family names occurred between 1840 and 1849. After the Hungarian revolution, this process was stopped until 1867. After the Ausgleich, many Jews changed their family names from German to Hungarian. In 1942 during World War II, when Hungary became allied with Germany, the Hungarian Defense Ministry was tasked with "race validation." Its officials complained that no Hungarian or German names were "safe," as Jews might have any name. They deemed Slavic names to be "safer", but the decree listed 58 Slavic-sounding names regularly held by Jews. Population statistics 1890 / 1900 / 1910 census summaries 1890 1900 1910 Total population of Hungary, without Croatia 15,162,988 16,838,255 18,264,533 Emigration to the US in the previous decade, '00-'09 164,119 261,444 1,162,271 Jewish population, again without Croatia 707,961 831,162 911,227 Increase of the total population in the previous decade 10.28% 11.05% 8.47% (Emigration to the US in the previous decade, '00-'09) / population at previous census 1.19% 1.72% 6.90% Increase of the Jewish population in the previous decade 13.31% 17.40% 9.62% Jewish/Total 4.67% 4.94% 4.99% Almost a quarter (22.35%) of the Jews of Hungary lived in Budapest in 1910. Some of the surviving large synagogues in Budapest include the following: Dohany Street Synagogue Pest Hungary.jpg Interior of Dohány Street Synagogue Hegedus Gyula Utca Synagogue Pest Hungary.jpg Hegedus Gyula Utca Synagogue Rumbach St Synagogue Pest Hungary 2.jpg Rumbach Street Synagogue Vasvari Pal St Synagogue Pest Hungary.jpg Vasvari Pal Street Synagogue Kazinczy St Orthodox Synagogue Pest Hungary.jpg Kazinczy Street Orthodox Synagogue 1910 census According to the 1910 census, the number of Jews was 911,227, or 4.99% of the 18,264,533 people living in Hungary (In addition, there were 21,231 Jews in autonomous Croatia-Slavonia). This was a 28.7% increase in absolute terms since the 1890 census, and a 0.3% increase (from 4.7%) in the overall population of Hungary. At the time, the Jewish natural growth rate was higher than the Christian (although the difference had been narrowing), but so was the emigration rate, mainly to the United States. (The total emigration from Austria-Hungary to the U.S. in 1881–1912 was 3,688,000 people, including 324,000 Jews (8.78%). In the 1880–1913 period, a total of 2,019,000 people emigrated from Hungary to the US. Thus, an estimated 177,000 Jews emigrated from Hungary to the US during this total period.)Szablon:Citation needed The net loss for Judaism due to conversions was relatively low before the end of the Great War: 240 people/year between 1896 and 1900, 404 between 1901 and 1910, and 435 people/year between 1911 and 1917. According to records, 10,530 people left Judaism, and 2,244 converted to Judaism between 1896 and 1917. The majority (75.7%) of the Jewish population reported Hungarian as their primary language, so they were counted as ethnically Hungarian in the census. The Yiddish speakers were counted as ethnically German. According to this classification, 6.94% of the ethnic Hungarians and 11.63% of the Germans of Hungary were Jewish. In total, Hungarian speakers made up a 54.45% majority in Hungary; German speakers (including those who spoke Yiddish), made up 10.42% of the population.Szablon:Citation needed Population of the capital, Budapest, was 23% Jewish (about the same ratio as in New York City). This community had established numerous religious and educational institutions. Pest was more Jewish than Buda. The prosperity, cultural, and financial prominence of Budapest's large Jewish community attested to its successful integration. Indeed, commentators opined in 1911 that Hungary had "absorbed" their Jews and "it has come to pass that there is no anti-Semitism in Budapest, although the Hebrew element is proportionately much larger (21% as compared to 9%) than it is in Vienna, the Mecca of the Jew-baiter" At that time Karl Lueger, mayor of Vienna referred to the capital as Judapest, alluding to the high proportion of Jews. Budapest had the third largest Jewish population among the world's cities, after New York and Warsaw.Szablon:Citation needed Jews in Hungary were long prevented from owning land, which resulted in many going into business. In 1910, 60.96% of merchants, 58.11% of the book printers, 41.75% of the innkeepers, 24.42% of the bakers, 24.07% of the butchers, 21.04% of the tailors, and 8.90% of the shoemakers of Hungary were Jewish. 48.5% of the physicians in the country (2701 out of 5565) were Jewish.{{#invoke:Footnotes|sfn|template=sfn}} In the 1893–1913 period, Jews made up roughly 20% of the students of the gimnázium high school (where classical subjects were emphasized) students and 37% of reál high school (where practical subjects were emphasized).Szablon:Citation needed The strong class divisions of Hungary were represented in the Jewish population. About 3.1% of the Jews belonged to the "large employer" and "agricultural landowner of more than 100 hold, i.e. 57 hectares" class, 3.2% to the "small (<100 hold) landholder" class, 34.4% to the "working", i.e. wage-earning employee class, while 59.3% belonged to the self-employed or salary-earning middle class. There was also religious division, with three denominations. Budapest, the South and West had a Neolog majority (related to modern US Conservative and Reform Judaism- the kipah and organ were both used in religious worship in the synagogues). Traditionalists ("Status quo ante") were the smallest of the three, mainly in the North. The East and North of the country were overwhelmingly Orthodox (more orthodox than "status quo ante"). In broad terms, Jews whose ancestors had come from Moravia in the 18th century tended to become Neolog at the split in 1869; those whose ancestors were from Galicia identified as Orthodox.Szablon:Citation needed In absolute numbers, Budapest had by far the largest number of Jews (203,000), followed by Nagyvárad (Oradea) with 15,000, Újpest and Miskolc with about 10,000 each, Máramarossziget (Sighetu Marmaţiei), Munkács (Mukachevo), Pozsony (Bratislava), Debrecen with 8,000, Kolozsvár (Cluj-Napoca), Szatmárnémeti (Satu Mare), Temesvár (Timișoara), Kassa (Košice) with about 7,000 each.Szablon:Citation needed Interwar (1918–1939) Population Plik:Magyar JNF Box (2573452490).jpg Magyar Jewish tzedaka box, possibly for donations to the Keren Kayemet/JNF. Using data from the 1910 census, 51.7% of the Hungarian Jews lived in territories that stayed inside the "small" Hungary after 1921, 25.5% (232,000) lived in territories that later became part of Czechoslovakia, 19.5% (178,000) became part of Romania, 2.6% (23,000) became part of Yugoslavia, 0.5% (5,000) became part of Austria and finally 0.2% (2,000) lived in Fiume, which became part of Italy after 1924. According to the censuses of 1930–1931, 238,460/192,833/about 22,000 Jews lived in parts of Czechoslovakia/Romania/Yugoslavia formerly belonging to Hungary, which means that the overall number of people declaring themselves Jewish remained unchanged in the Carpathian basin between 1910 and 1930 [a decrease of 26,000 in the post-WW1 Hungary, a 6,000 increase in Czechoslovakia and a 15,000 increase in Romania].Szablon:Citation needed According to the census of December 1920 in the "small" Hungary, the percentage of Jews increased in the preceding decade in Sátoraljaújhely (to 30.4%), Budapest (23.2%), Újpest (20.0%), Nyíregyháza (11.7%), Debrecen (9.9%), Pécs (9.0%), Sopron (7.5%), Makó (6.4%), Rákospalota (6.1%), Kispest (5.6%) and Békéscsaba (to 5.6%), while decreased in the other 27 towns with more than 20 thousand inhabitants. Overall, 31.1% of the Jewish population lived in villages and towns with less than 20 thousand inhabitants.Szablon:Citation needed In 1920, 46.3% of the medical doctors, 41.2% of the veterinarians, 21.4% of the pharmacists of Hungary were Jewish, as well as 34.3% of the journalists, 24.5% of performers of music, 22.7% of the theater actors, 16.8% of the painters and sculptors. Among the owners of land of more than 1000 hold, i.e. 570 hectares, 19.6% were Jewish. Among the 2739 factories in Hungary, 40.5% had a Jewish owner. The following table shows the number of people who declared to be Israelite (Jewish) at the censuses inside the post-WWI territory of Hungary. Between 1920 and 1945, it was illegal for Hungarians to fail to declare their religion A person's religion was written on their birth certificate, marriage license (except in 1919, during the short-lived Commune, see Hungarian Soviet Republic), and even on a child's school grade reports.Szablon:Citation needed Census 12.31.1910 (inside 1937 borders) 12.31.1920 12.31.1930 01.31.1941 (inside 1937 borders) 1949 2001 2011 "izraelita" 471,355 473,310 444,567 400,981 133,861 12,871 10,965 % of total 6.19% 5.93% 5.12% 4.30% 1.45% 0.13% 0.11% The net loss for Judaism due to official conversions was 26,652 people between 1919 and 1938, while 4,288 people converted into the faith, 30,940 left it. The endpoints of this period, 1919–1920 (white terror) and 1938 (anti-Jewish law) contributed to more than half of this loss; between 1921 and 1930, the net loss rested around pre-war levels (260 people/year).: 1896–1900 (pre-WWI borders) 1901–1910 (pre-WWI borders) 1911–1917 (pre-WWI borders) 1919–1920 1921–1930 1931–1937 1938 alone Total years 5 10 7 2 10 7 1 Converted from Judaism 1,681 5,033 3,816 9,103 5,315 7,936 8,586 Converted to Judaism 481 994 769 316 2,718 1,156 98 Population of Budapest 1851 1869 1880 1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1941 1949 2001 (Greater) 2011 (Greater) Total 178,062 270,476 355,682 486,671 703,448 880,371 928,996 1,006,184 1,164,963 1,057,912 1,777,921 1,729,040 Jewish 26,887 (15.1%) 44,890 (16.6%) 70,227 (19.7%) 102,377 (21.0%) 166,198 (23.6%)o 203,687 (23.1%) 215,512 (23.2%) 204,371 (20.3%) 184,453 (15.8%) 96,537 (9.1%) 9,468 (0.5%) 7,925 (0.5%) In 1926, the districts I, II, III of Buda were Jewish 8%,11%,10% respectively. The 19,000 Jews of Buda constituted about 9.3% of both the total population of Buda and the entire Jewish population of Budapest. On the left (Pest) side of the Danube, downtown Pest (Belváros, district IV then) was 18% Jewish. Districts V (31%), VI (28%), VII (36%), VIII (22%), IX (13%) had large Jewish populations, while district X had 6%. The four Neolog communities of Budapest (I-II, III, IV-IX, X) had a total of 66,300 members paying their dues, while the Orthodox community had about 7,000 members paying religious taxes.Szablon:Citation needed In the countryside of the post-WW1 Hungary, the Orthodox had a slight edge (about 49%) over the Neolog (46%). Budapest and countryside combined, 65.72% of the 444,567 Jews belonged to Neolog communities, 5.03% to Status quo ante, while 29.25% were Orthodox in 1930. The Jewish communities suffered a 5.6% decline in the 1910–1930 period, on the territory of the "small" Hungary, due to emigration and conversion.Szablon:Citation needed The Jews of Hungary were fairly well integrated into Hungarian society by the time of the First World War. Class distinction was very significant in Hungary in general, and among the Jewish population in particular. Rich bankers, factory owners, lower middle class artisans and poor factory workers did not mingle easily. In 1926, there were 50,761 Jewish families living in Budapest. Of that number, 65% lived in apartments that contained one or two rooms, 30% had three or four rooms, while 5% lived in apartments with more than 4 rooms.Szablon:Citation needed # of households max 1 room 2 rooms 3 rooms 4 rooms 5 rooms min 6 rooms Jewish= 50,761 25.4% 39.6% 21.2% 9.2% 3.1% 1.5% Christian = 159,113 63.3% 22.1% 8.4% 3.8% 1.4% 1.0% Education. The following chart illustrates the effect of the 1920 "Numerus clausus" Law on the percentage of Jewish university students at two Budapest Universities. Jewish students 1913 1925 Spring Budapest University of Sciences 34.1% 7.7% Budapest University of Technology and Economics 31.9% 8.8% {{#invoke:Footnotes|sfn|template=sfn}} Those who could afford went to study to other European countries like Austria, Germany, Italy and Czechoslovakia. In 1930, of all males aged six and older,{{#invoke:Footnotes|sfn|template=sfn}} Schooling >= 8 years >= 12 years university degree General population 10.8% 5.8% 2.1% Jews in the countryside 36.6% 17.0% 5.0% Jews in Budapest 56.5% 31.7% 8.1% Seven of the thirteen Nobel prize winners born in Hungary are Jewish. In sports, 55.6% of the individual gold medal winners of Hungary at the Summer Olympic Games between 1896 and 1912 were Jewish. This number dropped to 17.6% in the interwar period of 1924–1936.Szablon:Citation needed Period 1896–1912 1924–1936 1948–1956 1960–1972 1976–1992 (1984 excluded) 1996–2008 # of Olympics 5 4 3 4 4 4 Total Golds 442 482 440 684 903 1172 Hungarian Golds 11 22 35 32 33 26 Hungarian/total World 2.49% 4.56% 7.95% 4.68% 3.65% 2.22% Hungarian Individual Gold 9 17 26 22 27 16 Hungarian Jewish Individual 5 3 6 4 0 0 Jewish/total individual Hungarian 55.56% 17.65% 23.08% 18.18% 0% 0% Jews in Gold Teams 57.14% = 8/14 28.21%= 11/39 Jews in population 4.99% (1910) 5.12% (1930) 1.45% (1949) 0.13% (2001) Revolution More than 10,000 Jews died and thousands were wounded and disabled fighting for Hungary in World War I. But these sacrifices by patriotic Hungarian Jews may have been outweighed by the chaotic events following the war's end.Szablon:Citation needed With the defeat and dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, Hungary would be forced by the Allies to adhere to the Treaty of Trianon, which ceded to neighboring nations fully two-thirds of Hungary's imperial territory and two thirds of its population, including a third of its ethnically Magyar citizens and many Jews. These losses provoked deep anger and hostility in the remaining Hungarian population. The first post-war government was led by Mihály Károlyi, and was the first modern effort at liberal democratic government in Hungary. But it was cut short in a spasm of communist revolution, which would have serious implications for the manner in which Hungarian Jews were viewed by their fellow-countrymen.Szablon:Citation needed In March 1919, Communist and Social Democrat members of a coalition government ousted Karolyi; soon after (21 March), the Communists were to take power as their Social Democrat colleagues were willing neither to accept nor to refuse the Vix Note to cede a significant part of the Great Plains to Romania and the communists took control of Hungary's governing institutions. While popular at first among Budapest's progressive elite and proletariat, the so-called Hungarian Soviet Republic fared poorly in almost all of its aims, particularly its efforts to regain territories occupied by Slovakia (although achieving some transitional success here) and Romania. All the less palatable excesses of Communist uprisings were in evidence during these months, particularly the formation of squads of brutal young men practicing what they called "revolutionary terror" to intimidate and suppress dissident views. All but the one Sándor Garbai, the revolution's leaders, including Béla Kun, Tibor Szamuely, and Jenő Landler – were of Jewish ancestry. As in other countries where Communism was viewed as an immediate threat, the presence of ethnic Jews in positions of revolutionary leadership helped foster the notion of a Jewish-Bolshevik conspiracy. Kun's regime was crushed after four and a half months when the Romanian army entered Budapest; it was quickly followed by the reactionary forces under the command of the former Austro-Hungarian admiral, Miklós Horthy.Szablon:Citation needed The sufferings endured during the brief revolution, and their exploitation by ultra-nationalist movements, helped generate stronger suspicions among non-Jewish Hungarians, and undergirded pre-existing anti-Semitic views.Szablon:Citation needed Beginning in July 1919, officers of Horthy's National Army engaged in a brutal string of counter-reprisals against Hungarian communists and their allies, real or imagined. This series of pogroms directed at Jews, progressives, peasants and others is known as the White Terror. Horthy's personal role in these reprisals is still subject of debate (in his memoirs he refused to disavow the violence, saying that "only an iron broom" could have swept the country clean). Tallying the numbers of victims of the different terror campaigns in this period is still a matter of some political dispute but the White Terror is generally considered to have claimed more lives than the repressions of the Kun regime by an order of magnitude, thousands vs hundreds. Interwar years In the first few decades of the 20th century the Jews of Hungary numbered roughly 5 percent of the population. This minority had managed to achieve great commercial success, and Jews were disproportionately represented in the professions, relative to their numbers. In 1921 Budapest, 88% of the members of the stock exchange and 91% of the currency brokers were Jews, many of them ennobled.Szablon:Citation needed In interwar Hungary, more than half and perhaps as much as 90 percent of Hungarian industry was owned or operated by a few closely related Jewish banking families.Szablon:Citation needed Plik:Jewish Hungarian country girl in 1928.jpg A Jewish Hungarian country girl around 1930. Plik:In front of the Grünbaum grocery shop.jpg Local customers in front of a Jewish grocery in Berzence, around 1930. Jews represented one-fourth of all university students and 43% percent at Budapest Technological University. In 1920, 60 percent of Hungarian doctors, 51 percent of lawyers, 39 percent of all privately employed engineers and chemists, 34 percent of editors and journalists, and 29 percent of musicians identified themselves as Jews by religion. Resentment of this Jewish trend of success was widespread: Admiral Horthy himself declared that he was "an anti-Semite", and remarked in a letter to one of his prime ministers, "I have considered it intolerable that here in Hungary everything, every factory, bank, large fortune, business, theater, press, commerce, etc. should be in Jewish hands, and that the Jew should be the image reflected of Hungary, especially abroad."{{#invoke:Footnotes|sfn|template=sfn}} Unfortunately for Jews they had also become, by a quirk of history, the most visible minority remaining in Hungary (besides ethnic Germans and Gypsies); the other large "non-Hungarian" populations (including Slovaks, Slovenes, Croats, and Romanians, among others) had been abruptly excised from the Hungarian population by the territorial losses at Trianon. That and the highly visible role of Jews in the economy, the media and the professions, as well as in the leadership of the 1919 Communist dictatorship left Hungary's Jews as an ethnically separate group which could serve as a scapegoat for the nation's ills. The scapegoating began quickly. In 1920, Horthy's government passed a "Numerus Clausus" law that placed limits on the number of minority students in proportion of their size of the population, thus restricting the Jewish enrollment at universities to five percent or less.Szablon:Citation needed Anti-Jewish policies grew more repressive in the interwar period as Hungary's leaders, who remained committed to regaining territories lost in WW1, chose to align themselves (albeit warily) with the fascist governments of Germany and Italy – the international actors most likely to stand behind Hungary's claims. The inter-war years also saw the emergence of flourishing fascist groups, such as the Hungarian National Socialist Party and the Arrow Cross Party. Anti-Jewish measures Anti-Jewish Laws (1938–1941) Starting in 1938, Hungary under Miklós Horthy passed a series of anti-Jewish measures in emulation of Germany's Nuremberg Laws. The "First Jewish Law" (May 29, 1938) restricted the number of Jews in each commercial enterprise, in the press, among physicians, engineers and lawyers to twenty percent. The "Second Jewish Law" (May 5, 1939), for the first time, defined Jews racially: individuals with two, three or four Jewish-born grandparents were declared Jewish. The "Third Jewish Law" (August 8, 1941) prohibited intermarriage and penalized sexual intercourse between Jews and non-Jews. Their employment in government at any level was forbidden, they could not be editors at newspapers, their numbers were restricted to six per cent among theater and movie actors, physicians, lawyers and engineers. Private companies were forbidden to employ more than 12% Jews. 250,000 Hungarian Jews lost their income. Most of them lost their right to vote as well: before the second Jewish law, about 31% of the Jewish population of Borsod county (Miskolc excluded), 2496 people had this right. At the next elections, less than a month after this new anti-Jewish legislation, only 38 privileged Jews could vote. In the elections of May 28–29, Nazi and Arrow Cross (Nyilas) parties received one quarter of the votes and 52 out of 262 seats. Their support was even larger, usually between 1/3 and 1/2 of the votes, where they were on the ballot at all, since they were not listed in large parts of the country For instance, the support for Nazi parties was above 43% in the election districts of Zala, Győr-Moson, Budapest surroundings, Central and Northern Pest-Pilis, and above 36% in Veszprém, Vas, Szabolcs-Ung, Sopron, Nógrád-Hont, Jász-Nagykun, Southern Pest town and Buda town. The Nazi parties were not on the ballot mainly in the Eastern third of the country and in Somogy, Baranya, Tolna, Fejér. Their smallest support was in Békés county (15%), Pécs town (19%), Szeged town (22%) and in Northern Pest town (27%) January 1941 census According to Magyarország történelmi kronológiája, the census of January 31, 1941 found that 6.2% of the population of 13,643,621, i.e. 846,000 people, were considered Jewish according to the racial laws of that time. In addition, in April 1941, Hungary annexed the Bácska (Bačka), the Muraköz (Međimurje County) and Muravidék (Prekmurje) regions from the occupied Yugoslavia, with 1,025,508 people including 15,000 Jews (data are from October 1941). This means that inside the May 1941 borders of Hungary, there were 861,000 people (or 5.87%) who were at least half Jewish, and therefore were considered Jewish. From this number, 725,000 (or 4.94%) were Jewish in accordance with Jewish religious law (4.30% in pre-1938 Hungary, 7.15% in the territories annexed from Czechoslovakia and Romania in 1938–1940 and 1.38% in the territories annexed from Yugoslavia in 1941).Szablon:Citation needed year of annexation; from which country Region Jewish by religion in 1941 Jewish by law but not by confessed religion Jewish pre-1938; Hungary Budapest 185,000 36,000–72,000 221,000-257,000 pre-1938; Hungary countryside 216,000 16,000–38,000 232,000–254,000 1938; Czechoslovakia southern Slovakia 39,000 1,000–10,000 40,000–49,000 1938; Czechoslovakia lower Carpatho-Ruthenia (lower Ung and Bereg counties) 39,000 – 39,000 1939; Czechoslovakia upper Carpatho-Ruthenia (ex-Czech part only) 81,000 – 81,000 1940; Romania Northern Transylvania 151,000 3,000–15,000 154,000–166,000 1941; Yugoslavia Bácska and other territories 14,000 1,000 15,000 Total 725,000 57,000–136,000 782,000–861,000 The following is from another source, a statistical summary written in the beginning of 1944 and referring to the 1941 census data: Region by year of annexation Yiddish+Hebrew by mother tongue in 1941 Jewish by ethnicity in 1941 Jewish by religion in 1941 Jewish by religion in 1930 Jewish by religion in 1910 pre-1938 1,357+222 9,764 (0.10%) 400,980 (4.30%) 444,567 (5.12%) 471,378 (6.19%) 1938 10,735+544 14,286 (1.35%) 77,700 (7.32%) 78,190 (7.56%) 66,845 (7.69%) 1939 68,643+1,987 64,191 (9.25%) 80,960 (11.67%) 71,782 (12.11%) 63,324 (12.75%) 1940 45,492+2,960 47,357 (1.84%) 151,125 (5.86%) 148,288 (6.20%) 134,225 (6.14%) 1941 338+47 3,857 (0.37%) 14,242 (1.38%) ? 17,642 (1.87%) Total 126,565+5,760 139,455 (0.95%) 725,007 (4.94%) 753,415 (6.22%) The question about Jewish grandparents was added late to the questionnaires at the census of 1941, when some of the sheets had already been printed. In addition, a lot of Christians of Jewish ancestry did not answer this question truthfully. So while about 62,000 Christians admitted some Jewish ancestry (including 38,000 in Budapest), their actual number was estimated at least 100,000: Religion 4 Jewish grandparents 3 2 1 Jewish in Budapest 175,651 448 7,655 699 Christian in Budapest 26,120 616 9,238 1,957 Jewish in the entire country 708,419 1,639 15,011 1,938 Christian in the entire country 38,574 888 18,015 4,071 First massacres It is not clear whether the 10,000–20,000 Jewish refugees (from Poland and elsewhere) were counted in the January 1941 census. They and anyone who could not prove legal residency since 1850, about 20,000 people, were deported to southern Poland and either abandoned there or were handed over to the Germans between July 15 and August 12, 1941. In practice, the Hungarians deported many people whose families had lived in the area for generations. In some cases, applications for residency permits were allowed to pile up without action by Hungarian officials until after the deportations had been carried out. The vast majority of those deported were massacred in Kameniec-Podolsk (Kamianets-Podilskyi massacre) at the end of August.Szablon:Efn In the massacres of Újvidék (Novi Sad) and villages nearby, 2,550–2,850 Serbs, 700–1,250 Jews and 60–130 others were murdered by the Hungarian Army and "Csendőrség" (Gendarmerie) in January 1942. Those responsible, Ferenc Feketehalmy-Czeydner, Márton Zöldy, József Grassy, László Deák and others were later tried in Budapest during December 1943 and were sentenced, but some of them escaped to Germany.Szablon:Citation needed During the war, Jews were called up to serve in unarmed "labour service" (munkaszolgálat) units which were used to repair bombed railroads, build airports or to clean up minefields at the front barehanded. Approximately 42,000 Jewish labour service troops were killed at the Soviet front in 1942–43, of which about 40% perished in Soviet POW camps. Many died as a result of harsh conditions on the Eastern Front and cruel treatment by their Hungarian sergeants and officers. Another 4,000 forced laborers died in the copper mine of Bor, Serbia. Nevertheless, Miklós Kállay, Prime Minister from March 9, 1942 and Regent Horthy resisted German pressure and refused to allow the deportation of Hungarian Jews to the German extermination camps in occupied Poland. This "anomalous" situation lasted until March 19, 1944, when German troops occupied Hungary and forced Horthy to oust Kállay.Szablon:Citation needed The HolocaustSzablon:Anchor Germany invades Hungary Plik:Adolf Eichmann, 1942.jpg Adolf Eichmann in 1942 On 18 March 1944, Adolf Hitler summoned Horthy to a conference in Austria, where he demanded greater acquiescence from the Hungarian state. Horthy resisted, but his efforts were fruitless – while he attended the conference, German tanks rolled into Budapest.Szablon:Citation needed On March 23, the government of Döme Sztójay was installed. Among his other first moves, Sztójay legalized the Arrow Cross Party, which quickly began organizing. During the four days' interregnum following the German occupation, the Ministry of the Interior was put in the hands of László Endre and László Baky, right-wing politicians well known for their hostility to Jews. Their boss, Andor Jaross, was another committed anti-Semite.Szablon:Citation needed A few days later, Ruthenia, Northern Transylvania, and the border region with Croatia and Serbia were placed under military command. On April 9, Prime Minister Döme Sztójay and the Germans obligated Hungary to place at the disposal of the Reich 300,000 Jewish laborers. Five days later, on April 14, Endre, Baky, and Adolf Eichmann, the SS officer in charge of organising the deportation of Hungarian Jews to the German Reich, decided to deport all the Jews of Hungary.Szablon:Citation needed Although from 1943, the BBC Polish Service broadcast about the exterminations, the BBC Hungarian Service did not discuss the Jews. A 1942 memo for the BBC Hungarian Service, written by Carlile Macartney, a British Foreign Office adviser on Hungary, said: "We shouldn't mention the Jews at all." Macartney believed that most Hungarians were antisemitic, and that mentioning the Jews would alienate much of the population.Szablon:Efn Most of the Jews did not believe that the Holocaust might happen in Hungary: "This might be happening in Galicia to Polish Jews, but this can't happen in our very cultivated Hungarian state."Szablon:Efn According to Yehuda Bauer, when the deportations to Auschwitz began in May 1944, the Zionist youth movements organized smuggling of Hungarian Jews into Romania. Around 4,000 Hungarian Jews were smuggled into Romania, including the smugglers and those who paid them on the border. The Romanians agreed to let those Jews in, despite heavy German pressure.Szablon:Efn Deportation to Auschwitz Plik:Selection on the ramp at Auschwitz-Birkenau, 1944 (Auschwitz Album) 1b.jpg Hungarian Jews on the Judenrampe (Jewish ramp) at Auschwitz II-Birkenau after disembarking from the transport trains. To be sent to the right meant labor; to the left the gas chambers. Photo from the Auschwitz Album (May/June 1944) Plik:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-N0827-318, KZ Auschwitz, Ankunft ungarischer Juden.jpg Hungarian Jews from Carpatho-Ruthenia arriving at Auschwitz SS-Obersturmbannführer Adolf Eichmann, whose duties included supervising the extermination of Jews, set up his staff in the Majestic Hotel and proceeded rapidly in rounding up Jews from the Hungarian provinces outside Budapest and its suburbs. The Yellow Star and Ghettoization laws, and deportation, were accomplished in less than 8 weeks, with the enthusiastic help of the Hungarian authorities, particularly the gendarmerie (csendőrség). The plan was to use 45 cattle cars per train, 4 trains a day, to deport 12,000 Jews to Auschwitz every day from the countryside, starting in mid-May; this was to be followed by the deportation of Jews of Budapest from about July 15. Just before the deportations began, the Vrba-Wetzler Report reached the Allied officials. Details from the report were broadcast by the BBC on 15 June, and printed in The New York Times on 20 June. World leaders, including Pope Pius XII (25 June), President Franklin D. Roosevelt on 26 June, and King Gustaf V of Sweden on 30 June, subsequently pleaded with Horthy to use his influence to stop the deportations. Roosevelt specifically threatened military retaliation if the transports were not ceased. On 7 July, Horthy at last ordered the transports halted. According to historian Péter Sipos, the Hungarian government had already known about the Jewish genocide since 1943. Horthy's son and daughter-in-law both received copies of the Vrba-Wetzler report in early May, before mass deportations began.{{#invoke:Footnotes|sfn|template=sfn}}Szablon:Efn The Vrba-Wetzler Report is believed to have been passed to Hungarian Zionist leader Rudolf Kastner no later than 28 April 1944; however, Kastner did not make it public. The first transports to Auschwitz began in early May 1944, and continued, even as Soviet troops approached. The Hungarian government was solely in charge of the Jews' transportation up to the northern border. The Hungarian commander of the Kassa (Košice) railroad station meticulously recorded the trains heading to Auschwitz with their place of departure and the number of people inside them. The first train went through Kassa on May 14. On a typical day, there were three or four trains, with between 3,000 and 4,000 people on each train, for a total of approximately 12,000 Jews delivered to the extermination facilities each day. There were 109 trains during these 33 days through June 16. (There were days when there were as many as six trains.) Between June 25 and 29, there were 10 trains, then an additional 18 trains on July 5–9. The 138th recorded train (with the 400,426th victim) heading to Auschwitz via Kassa was on July 20. Another 10 trains were sent to Auschwitz via other routes (24,000+ people) (the first two left Budapest and Topolya on April 29, and arrived at Auschwitz on May 2), while 7 trains with 20,787 people went to Strasshof between June 25 and 28 (2 each from Debrecen, Szeged, and Baja; 1 from Szolnok). The unique Kastner train left for Bergen-Belsen with 1,685 people on June 30. By 9 July 1944, 437,402 Jews had been deported, according to Reich plenipotentiary in Hungary Edmund Veesenmayer's official German reports.Szablon:Efn One hundred and forty-seven trains were sent to Auschwitz, where most of the deportees were exterminated on arrival.{{#invoke:Footnotes|sfn|template=sfn}} Because the crematoria could not cope with the number of corpses, special pits were dug near them, where bodies were simply burned. It has been estimated that one third of the murdered victims at Auschwitz were Hungarian. For most of this time period, 12,000 Jews were delivered to Auschwitz in a typical day, among them the future writer and Nobel Prize-winner Elie Wiesel, at age 15. Photographs taken at Auschwitz were found after the war showing the arrival of Jews from Hungary at the camp. The devotion to the cause of the "final solution" of the Hungarian gendarmes surprised even Eichmann himself, who supervised the operation with only twenty officers and a staff of 100, which included drivers, cooks, etc. Efforts to rescue Jews Plik:Bundesarchiv Bild 101I-680-8285A-08, Budapest, Festnahme von Juden.jpg Captured Jewish women in Wesselényi Street, Budapest, 20–22 October 1944 Plik:Budapest Hungary Holocaust Shoe Memorial Danube.jpg Holocaust Shoe Memorial beside the Danube River in Budapest. The shoes represent Hungarian Jews who lost their lives in January 1945. Very few members of the Catholic or Protestant clergy raised their voices against sending the Jews to their death. (Notable was Bishop Áron Márton's sermon in Kolozsvár on May 18). The Catholic Primate of Hungary, Serédi decided not to issue a pastoral letter condemning the deportation of the Jews. Rome was liberated on June 4, D-day landing in Normandy was on June 6. But on June 15, the Mayor of Budapest designated 2,000 (5%) "starred" houses where every Jew (20%+) had to move together. The authorities thought that the Allies would not bomb Budapest because the "starred" houses were scattered around the town. At the end of June, the Pope in Rome, The King of Sweden, and, in strong terms, President Franklin D. Roosevelt urged the halt to the deportations. Admiral Horthy ordered the suspension of all deportations on July 6. Nonetheless, another 45,000 Jews were deported from the Trans-Danubian region and the outskirts of Budapest to Auschwitz after this day. "After the failed attempt on Hitler's life, the Germans backed off from pressing Horthy's regime to continue further, large-scale deportations, although some smaller groups continued to be deported by train. In late August, Horthy refused Eichmann's request to restart the deportations. Himmler ordered Eichmann to leave Budapest."Szablon:Efn The Sztójay government rescheduled the date of deportation of the Jews of Budapest to Auschwitz to August 27. But the Romanians switched sides on August 23, 1944, causing huge problems for the German military. Himmler ordered the cancellation of further deportations from Hungary on August 25, in return for nothing more than Szablon:Ill’s promise to see whether the Germans' demands would be met.Szablon:Efn Horthy finally dismissed Prime Minister Sztójay on August 29, the same day the Slovak National Uprising against the Nazis started. In spite of the change of government, Hungarian troops occupied parts of Southern Transylvania, Romania, and massacred hundreds of Jews in Kissármás (Sărmașu; Sărmașu massacre), Marosludas (Luduș; Luduș massacre) and other places starting September 4. Plik:Carl Lutz Righteous Among Nations Plaque Washington, DC.jpg A Memorial plaque for Carl Lutz, a Swiss diplomat who saved the lives of tens of thousands of Hungarian Jews during the Holocaust. Arrow Cross rule After the Nyilaskeresztes (Arrow Cross) coup d'état on October 15, tens of thousands of Jews of Budapest were sent on foot to the Austrian border in death marches, most forced laborers under Hungarian Army command so far were deported (for instance to Bergen-Belsen), and two ghettos were set up in Budapest. The small "international ghetto" consisted of several "starred" houses under the protection of neutral powers in the Újlipótváros district. Switzerland was allowed to issue 7,800 Schutzpasses, Sweden 4,500, and the Vatican, Portugal and Spain 3,300 combined.{{#invoke:Footnotes|sfn|template=sfn}} The big Budapest ghetto was set up and walled in the Erzsébetváros part of Budapest on November 29. Nyilas raids and mass executions occurred in both ghettos regularly. In addition, in the two months between November 1944 and February 1945, the Nyilas shot 10,000–15,000 Jews on the banks of the Danube. Soviet troops liberated the big Budapest ghetto on January 18, 1945. On the Buda side of the town, the encircled Nyilas continued their murders until the Soviets took Buda on February 13. The names of some diplomats, Raoul Wallenberg, Carl Lutz, Ángel Sanz Briz, Giorgio Perlasca, Carlos Sampaio Garrido, and Carlos de Liz-Texeira Branquinho deserve mentioning, as well as some members of the army and police who saved people (Pál Szalai, Károly Szabó, and other officers who took Jews out from camps with fake papers), an Interior Ministry official (Béla Horváth) and some church institutions and personalities. Rudolf Kastner deserves special attention because of his enduring negotiations with Adolf Eichmann and Kurt Becher to prevent deportations to Auschwitz, succeeding only minimally by sending Jews to still horrific labor battalions in Austria and ultimately saving 1,680 Jews in Kastner's train. Number of survivors An estimated 119,000 Jewish people were liberated in Budapest (25,000 in the small "international" ghetto, 69,000 in the big ghetto, and 25,000 hiding with false papers) and 20,000 forced laborers in the countryside. Almost all the surviving deportees returned between May and December 1945, at least to check out the fate of their families. Their number was 116,000. It is estimated that from an original population of 861,000 people considered Jewish inside the borders of 1941–1944, about 255,000 survived. This gives a 29.6 percent survival rate. According to another calculation, Hungary's Jewish population at the time of the German invasion was 800,000, of which 365,000 survived. See also List of Hungarian Jews Arrow Cross Party Budapest Ghetto History of Hungary History of the Jews in Bekes (Hungary) History of the Jews in Carpathian Ruthenia Hungary during the Second World War Category:Israeli people of Hungarian-Jewish descent Kiryat Mattersdorf Miskolc pogrom Neolog Judaism Oberlander Jews Shoes on the Danube Promenade Siebengemeinden Batei Ungarin Unsdorf Notes References Note: This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Büchler, Alexander (1904). "Hungary". In Singer, Isidore (ed.). The Jewish Encyclopedia. Volume 6. New York and London: Funk and Wagnalls Co., pp. 494–503. {{#invoke:Check for unknown parameters|check|unknown=|preview=Page using Template:Reflist with unknown parameter "_VALUE_"|ignoreblank=y| 1 | colwidth | group | liststyle | refs }} Further reading Braham, Randolph L. (2001) The Holocaust in Hungary: a selected and annotated bibliography, 1984–2000. Boulder: Social Science Monographs; Distributed by Columbia University Press Braham, Randolph L. (2001) The Politics of Genocide: the Holocaust in Hungary. (Rev. and enl. ed.) 2 vols. Boulder: Social Science Monographs; Distributed by Columbia University Press [Hungarian translation available.] (1st ed.: New York: Columbia University Press, 1981.) Herczl, Moshe Y. Christianity and the Holocaust of Hungarian Jewry (1993) online Hungary and the Holocaust, US Holocaust Memorial Museum Miron, Guy, "Center or Frontier: Hungary and Its Jews, Between East and West", Journal of Levantine Studies, vol. 1, Summer 2011, pp. 67-91 Patai, Raphael, Apprentice in Budapest: Memories of a World That Is No More Lanham, Maryland, Lexington Books, 2000, External links Jewish Virtual Library articles on Hungary Documents on the Holocaust in Hungary Magyar Zsidó Lexikon Wallenberg: More Twists to the Tale, Mária Ember, They Wanted to Blame Us Heroes of the Hungarian Holocaust Interview with István Domonkos, son of Miksa Domonkos, who died after the show trial preparations (Hungarian) Chabad-Lubavitch Centers in Hungary Hungarian Jewish Homepage Jewish Budapest Map Jewish Heritage Walking Tours in Budapest